Skin: 2 layers

1. Epidermis: outer layer

2. dermis: inner layer with blood vessels

-under dermis: hypodermis: loose connective tissues, fat, etc

Fish:

-scales are dermal derivatives 

amphibians skin?

-stratified squamous epithilium in epidermis, mucous/poison glands are deeper

Reptilia skin?

-thick, keratinized stratum corneum(outermostleve) resists abrasion on dry land

Aves skin?

-like reptiles, dry scaly (epidermis skin)

-feathers: stratum corneum (epidermis derivative)

Mammals skin?

-epidermal derivative: nails (only primates have nails), hair, sweat glands, sebaceous glands(more productive-->oily hair, less productive-->dry hair)

-blood vessels/nerves only in dermis

-arrector pili muscles foreach hair: "on end"

-hair growth from bulb at base,shaft through epidermis

-Invertebrates skeletal systems?

1. Annelida: hydrostatic skeleton

2. Arthropoda: exoskeleton--site for muscle attachment

3. echinodermata: endoskeleton--CaCO3 ossicles

Vertebrates skeletal system?

and 2 main supportive tissues

endoskeleton

1. cariliage: site for muscle attachment

2. bone: support/proection for internal organs, sotre Ca/P, make RBC's and some WBC's

-Osteocytes are located where?

-in lacunae in concentric circles around osteoric canals with blood vessels and nerves

carilage/bony endoskeletons were first found where?

-vertbrates

axial parts?

skull, vertebrae, sternum, ribs

appendages structure?

-arms/legs, pectoral/pelvic gidles

Nonmuscular movement?

-amoeboid

-ciliary and flagellar movement 

Muscular Systems:

3 types of tissues:

1. smooth: 1 nucleus, involuntary, no striations

2. skeletal: more than one nuclues, voluntary, striations

3. cardiac: 1 nucleus, involuntary, striations and intercalated discs

movement for invertebrates?

-waves of contractions for movement over solid substratum = pedal(foot) locomotion example: planaria, snails, hydra

-earth worm: alternating circulary/long muscles

-leeches, catapillars: looping movements

-polychaetes: parapodia

-echniodermatas: tube feet drag body

-walking: crabs sideways; most use rotating of basal join of limb, go straight

muscular system of vertebrates:

-skeletal muscles attached to skeleton by tendons

-fish: myomere segments-lateral undulations(back and forth) of trunk and tail

skeletal muscle?

-more than one nucleus, muscle fiber (one large cell), myofibrils, striated A, I bands

2 types of contractile proteins?

1. actin: in thin filaments, Z lines attached

2. myosin: in thick filaments

sarcomere?

-functional unit of muscle contractions

Z lines:

-mid I band, at ends of sarcomere

Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction

-thin filaments slide towards each other by forming cross bridges with thick filaments

Presence or absence of Ca++

1. Ca++ absent, then tropomyosin blocks cross bridge binding site

2. Ca++ present, tropomyosin shifts, allowing cross bridges to form between myosin head and thin filaments; rachet mechanism shortens sarcomere and whole muscle

-nerve impulse via moter neurons to all muscle fibers it innervates = motor unit

sarcolemma:

-membrane around muscle fiber

neuromuscular junction:

cleft where motor neuron and muscle fiber meets

motor unit?

-nerve impulse-->ends of neuron, synaptic vsicles (in axon terminal)-->acetylcholine(ACh)

-ACh diffuses across cleft, binds to receptors reversing normal polarity of muscle membrane, causes waves of altered polarity across sarcolemma to T tubules, causing release of Ca++ from sacs

-when Ca++ releases-->receptor on troponin molecules on tropomyosin causing shift of tropomysoin, exposoing cross bridge binding sites so crossb ridges can frm between thick and thin filaments, so sarcomere shortens and whole muscle shortens

sarcolemma:

membrane around muscle fiber

neuromuscular junction

cleft (little gap) where motor nerves and muscle fiber meet

nerve impulse begins..then what?

when Ca++ is released what happens?

-receptor on troponin molecules on tropomyosin causing shift of tropomyosin, exposing a cross bridge binding sies so cross bridges can form between thick and thin filaments, so sarcomere shortens, and whole muscle shortens

-skeltal muscle contraction is controlled by presence/absence of Ca++

nutrition:

animal ingests, digests, absorbtion, stores and uses food to meet its metabolic needs

digestion:

chemical/mechanical breakdown of food into small molecules that can be absorbed

Evolution of Nutrition:

1. autotrophs: synthesize their own food

 a. phototrophs: use photo-synthesis

 b. chemoautotrops: no photo-synthesis; chemical reactions happen here

2. Heterotrophs: can't synthesize all their food: 
examples: animals, fungi, some bacteria 

herbivores:

carnivores:

omnivores:

macronutrients:

micronutrients:

-eat plants, not animals; ex. deer

-eat animals, not plants; ex. hawk

-eat both plants and animals; ex. bear

-need in large quantities; carbs, lipids, and proteins

-need in small quantities; vitamins, minerals

cal:

carbs:

-amount of energy needed to raise temperature of 1 gallon of water 1 degree C; 1 calorie = 1kcal

- sugars/starches

polysaccharides: 

proved cellulose, fiber, COLON

special about lipids?

-have twice the amount of energy as carbs/proteins..so they are more concentrated energy source

calcium:

-mineral; component of boen and teeth; essential for normal blood clotting; needed for normal muscle, neuron and cellular function

P (phosphorus)

-mineral: major component of bones, blood plasma; needed for energy metabolism; part of DNA, RNA, ATP, energy metabolism.

K (potassium)

-mineral; major positive ion in cells, influences muscle contraction and neuron excitability

Na (sodium)

-principal positive ion in extracellular fluid; important in fluid balance; essential for conduction of action potentials, active transport

carbohydrates path way: 

lipids path way:

proteins path way:

-carbs--> sugar/starches-->glucose-->glycolysis-->acetyl CoA

-glycerol-->fatty acids-->acetyl CoA

-amino acids-->acetyl CoA

I (iodine)

-trace mineral; component of thyroid hormones

Fe (iron)

-component of hemoglovin, myoglovin, enzymes, and cytochromes

essential minerals 

vs 

trace minerals

-Ca, P, K, Na

-I, Fe

what converts food into useful molecules?

-carbs/lipids/proteins

vitamins: 

fat-soluble vitamins: 

digestion: 

-small organic molecules; need in small amounts; folate, ascorbic acid

-A, D, and E

-intracellular in simple animlas; extracellular: enzymes break down large molecules

Types of ways to get food?

1.  continous feeders: seassile; filter feeder

2. discontinous feeders: mobile; example: carnivores, most herbivores

3. suspension feeders: capture food particles-->mouth; ex. Daphnia, mussles, sponges

4. deposit (bottom deposits at the bottom of a lake) feeders: get nutrietns from sediment

5.herbivory: eat plants; ex. Mollusks-radula, birds & rabbits, deer, cows, mice

6. predation: capture prey; example: lions, wolves, jellyfish, most fish, whales

7. surface nutrient absorbtion ex. tapeworms

8. fluid feeder: ectoparasites ex. leeche

9. moths drink plant juices or nectar

digestive structures: invertebrates:

-protozoa: intracellular digestion

- hydra: G-V cavity; grasshopper-crop, stomach, intestines, rectum; nematoda/annelida: intestines

digestive structure: vertebrates:

-tongues: teet on lamprey; frog tongue

-teeth: most vertebrates except turtle, birds & baleen whales have teeth

-salivary glands: all mamals, no birds

-pharynx & esophagus: food to crop/stomach

-stomach: HCL, pepsin digest protein

-gizzard: birds, crocodiles grind food; muscular 

-Ceca: blind pouch, more space for bacteria to breakdown large molecules

-liver: synthises bile, gallbladder stores it; bile emulsify large fat globules-->small fat globules

-pancreas: all vertebrates, many digestive enzymes; hormones: insulin and glucogen from blood

-small intestines: 1st digest, 2nd absorption

-colon: H2O, mineral absoption
-dueodneium: digests majority of large molecules that weren't digested

-insulin:

-glucagon: 

-uptake of glucose from blood

-increases blood glucose

mammalian digestive system: 

process of digestion/absorbtion nutrition:

1. ingestion

2. peristalsis: rings of smooth muscle contract behind bolus; relax in front of it

3. segmentation: rings of smooth muscle repeatedly contract/relax, mix food/enzymes

4. secretion: release hormones, enzymes, chemicals/ions that take part in digestion

5. digestion: breakdown large molecules-->small molecules

6. absorption: uptake of small molecules into blood vessels, lymph vessels around it. nutrient rich blood-->liver

7. defecation: void undigested food-->anus 

sphincters:

oral cavity: 

salivary amylase:

pharynx:

esophagus:

- rings of small or skeletal muscle that prevent backflow; example: cardiac, pyloric

-lips, teeth, tongue saliva from salivary glands moistens food, forms bolus, has bufers, saliva amylase

-carb digestion

-common passage for air/food

-small muscles moves bolus to stomach

stomach: 3 main functions 

1. stores/mixes

2. secretes enzymes, mucus, HCl to start digestion of proteins

3. controls rate food-->small intestines via pyloric sphincter

exhale: 

-intercostals & diaphragm relax, thoracic cavity-->original, smaller size

-abductor muscles contract, pushing abductor organs against  diaphragm, increase pressure in thoracic cavity

-elastic lungs compress air in alveoli, alveoli pressure becomes > atomspheric pressure, air expelled from lung

gas transport:


simple diffusion:

advanced diffusion: 

-needed by advanced animal

-only in simplest animals, short diffusion differences. example: platyhelimenthes, porifera, protozoa

-increased demand for O2, need both circulatory systems + respiratory pigments: organic compounds with Fe or Cu

hemoglobin:

hemocyanin:

-with iron ions, wide distance in invertebrates/vertebrates, carried in RBCs, blood plasma, coelomic fluid

with copper ions giving blue color to blood in molluscs, certain crustecea

CO2 

CO2 + H2O--> H2CO3-->H2CO3 + H^+

What are the steps in breaking down glucose into something the body can use?

Glycolysis -> Linking Step -> Krebs Cycle -> Electron Transport Chain

___ goes through glycolysis and becomes ___

Glucose; pyruvic acid

Glucose is a __ carbon molecule?

Pyruvic Acid is a __ carbon molecule

6

3

___ goes through the linking step and is changed into ___

pyruvic acid; acetyl 

Acetyl  is a __ carbon molecule

2

Coenzyme A is used in what step of glucose breakdown?

Krebs cycle

what happens during the krebs cycle?

carbon is oxidized

what happens during the electron transport chain?

energy from NADH is used to pump H+'s across the inner-mitochonodrial membrane. that energy is later captured to form ATP 

what is the final electron acceptor?

oxygen

how many ATP are formed from 1 NADH?

3

what is the most important enzyme in the electron transport chain and what is it's function?

ATP Synthetase; synthesize ATP

what is the function of a catalyst?

lowers the amount of energy needed for a reaction to occur (ATP synthetase is a catalyst)

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

oxidation: 

NAD+ 

NADH+

oxidative phophorylation:

ATP-->ADP

biosynthesis

-glycolysis, krebs cycle; CH20--> CO2

-oxidized form: low energy

-High energy form of the molecule coenzyme: give up a pair of electrons and H+ to go back to low energy form NAD+

-takes electrons from NADH+ and gives it to ADP to form ATP; O2--> H2O

-2 phosphate groups low energy form

-precursor molecules-->cell constituents; endergonic reactions

krebs cycle:

Coenzyme A--CoA given off-->citric acid--gives off CO2 and 2 electrons-->beta-Ketoglutaric acid--ADP turns to ATP, 2 electrons are given off and CO2 is given off-->succinic acid--2 electrons are given off-->malic acid-->oxaloacetic acid (CO4)

respiration...2 steps:

krebs cycle; electron transport chain

SHORT FORMS:

glycolysis: 

link step:

krebs cycle:

cell respiration:

-glucose (C6)-->pyruvic acid (C3)

-pyruvic acid--> acetyl (C2) w/CoA

-C2 oxidized, 3 NADH + 1 ATP

-glucose (C6)--> pyruvic acid (C3)-->linking step--> 3C and 2C-->acetyl and CoA-->citric acid (first molecule formed in krebs cycle)-->NADH x 3-->FADH2-->CO2 + 4 electrons

electron transport chain:

final electron acceptor:

END: 

-energy from NADH used to pump H+ across inner mitochondria membrane, energy laer captured to form ATP

-O2, which forms metabolic water

-as H+ passes through channel in inner membrane, provide energy for ADP + Pi-->ATP

proton gradient:

enzyme:

-energy from 1 NADH--> pumps H+; result H+ flow provides 3 ATP from 1 NADH

-ATP synthetase (synthesizing ATP)

Ciculation: 

transport system in invertebrates:

-nematoda/rotifera: pseudocoelom

-G-V cavity in Cnidaria and Platyhelimenthis

-separate ciculatory system starts with mollusca

-open: heart pumps hemolympth-heart, blood vessels, hemocoel, blood vessels, heart

-closed: blood only in blood vessels, no hemocoel

Circulation:

transport system in vertebrates:

ALL closed

-2, 3, 4 chambers in heart

-heart->arteries-->atreioles-->capillaries-->venules-->veins-->vena cavae-->heart

function of blood and blood cells:

-transport O2, CO2, nutrients (amino acids, calcium ions), hormones, defends against pathogens (disease causgin substances); clots; helps body regulate body temp and pH

GAS EXCHANGE

respiratory surfaces: 

1. simple diffusion: protozoa and simple animals

2. tracheae: insects, myriapoda

3. cutaneous (body surface) exchange

4. gills: decapods, fish, some amphibians

5. lungs: repitiles, birds, mammals, some amphibians

invertebrates respiratory systems:

1. simple diffusion: protozoa; platyhelimenthes (flat body); hydra (thin walled)

2. integumentary exchange: earth worm (capillaries just under integument

3. gills: most advanced aqueos invertebrates (crabs, shrimp, horse shoe crabs, octopus/squid)

4. tracheae: chitin-lined braching tubes; bug

5. book lungs: lamellae, ventral spiracle

vertebrate respiratory systems:

1. bimodal breathing: use both air and water; examples: lungfish, salmanders, crabs, barnacle

2. cutaneous exchange: frogs have capillaries just below epidermis

3. gills: adult fish (internal); larval amphibians and some larval fish(external)

-internal: countercurrent flow, efficient exchange

4. lungs: huge amount of thin moist respiratory epithelium greatly increases surface area for gas exchange

a. birds: very efficient, lungs +air sacs
b. frogs: use both lungs and moist skin 

five phases of respiration: (all air breathing animals)

1. ventilating lungs: bulk flow of air in/out

2. O2 diffuses across alveolus, capillary wall, RBC membrane, and binds to heme in hemoglobin

3. bulk flow of RBCs: trasnporting it all through the body, lungs-->left atrium-->left ventricle-->systemic circuit(aorta, arteries)-->capillaries

4. internal exchange: O2 diffuses across capillary wall (first red blood cell membrane)-->interstitial fluid-->cell membrane-->mitochondria membrane(matrix)

5. cellular respiratory in mitochondria: final electron acceptor

CO2 release

-CO2 is given off + H2O-> H2CO3 (carbonic acid) -> HCO3- (bicarbonate) + H+

pathway of air through lungs

trachea-->bronchi-->bronchioles-->respiratory bronchioles-->alveoli (grape like clusters)

alveoli:

gas exchange:

alveolar epithilium: 

ventilation:

inhale: 

-have extensive capillary beds where gas exchange takes place; huge area for gas exchange

-by simple diffusion, O2, CO2

-always moist, breath on mirror

-inhate, exhale

-diaphragm + intercostals contract englarging thoracic cavity, creats negative pressure (vaccum), air rushes into lungs, they inflate

blood contents:

plasma:

RBC's: 

all:

-plasma (liquid) + formed elemnts (RBC, WBC, platelets)

-90% water, 7% protein (albumin, fibrinogen, globulins), 3% other (ions, amino acids, glucose, enzymes, hormones, wastes (CO2), etc)

-erythrocytes with out nucleus in mammals, but oval larger with nucleus for other vertebrates

-hemoglobin (four polypeptide chains) + O2-->oxyhemoglobin

Types of WBC's

-luekocytes: larger destory pathogens at cuts, remove cell debris (General WBC's)

-neutrophils: 60-70%, attracted to sites of inflammations, active phagocytes: engulf a bacteria/virus

-basophils: release histamine, causes blood vessels to dilate/leak fluid at site of inflmmation

-lymphocytes: 20-30%, important in immune responses; smallest in volume; 2 types: B cells-synthesize in bone marrow; T cells- mature in thymus, immune response.

-other: eosinophils monocytes

platelets:

pulmonary circuit vs systemic circuit:

heart:

right atrium:

SA node:

lympathic system: 

-thrombocytes; cut in blood vessles, attach/plug damaged vessels, start clots

-lungs vs the rest of the body

-4 chambers; tricuspid, pulmonary, bicuspid, aortic valves

-recieves blood from 2 vena cavae

-pacemaker(1)-->aross atria (2)-->AV node (3)-->bundle of his(4)-->bundle branches (5) & punkinje fibers (6), cause ventricles to contract

-1 way flow, empties into veins

pulmonary artery

pulmonary vein

-low O2

-high O2

Osmoregulation & Excretion:

1. excretion: elimnation of metabolic wastes from body

2. osmoregulation: excretion of nitrogenous wastes and regulation of H2O, solutes

3. osmoconformer of body fluids: omosis of environment

4. osmoregulator: animal maintains body fluids at different omsotic than environment

5. mariane animals: hypoosmotic to sea; compensate by conserving H2O

6. fresh water animals: hyperosmotic to environment; compensate by excreting water

invertebrate excretory systems:

-contractile vacuoles: protozoa, porifera, cnidaria, echinodermata; FW protozoa + sponges use to expel excess H2O, requires energy

-protonephridia: platyhelimenthes, rotifera, larval mollsucs: flame cells filter fluids-->excretory canals-->nephridiopore

-metanephridia: womr, most annelids; less than one cell; n-stome->tubule-->bladder-->n-pore

-green glands: elimnation for H2O, reabsorbs ions, voiding nitrogenous waste; example: crayfish

-malpighina tubules: void uric acid, K+ions from hemocoel-->gut example: bugs

-coxal galnds: arachnids; uric acid-->sacs-->duct-->pore; reabsorbs along duct

3 function of the kidneys:

1. filtration: blood passes through filter, retains cells, larger molecules; small molecules/ion pass through

2. reabsorption: selective ions/molecules-->into blood from filtrate in nephron

3. secretion: selective ions/molecules from blood-->nephron, pass out of body with urine

Fishes: sea vs freshwater urine production

-FW: hypoosmotic to fish, so large volume of hypoosmotic urine

-sea: hyperosmotic to fish, so small volume of urin produced, isoosomtic to blood

metanephric function thingy (1 mil nephrons)

starts with Glomerular capusle-->proximal caonvlulted tubule (PCT)-->loop of henli-->distal convoluted tubule (DCT)-->collecting duct

blood in the kindey crap

renal artery-->afferent artery-->glomerulus-->efferent artery-->pertibuluar capillaries-->renal vein

-reabsorption and secretion occurs in pertibuluar capillaries

-mammals conserve H2O by bending nephron in loop; greatly increases (salt) in tissue through which loop passes; uses this gradient to reabsorb

countercurrent exchange: 

-longer the loop the greater the H2O/ions reabsorb

1. 70% of filtrate H2O + ions reabsorb in PCT, so filtrate remains iosomotic to blood

2. descending limb of loop of henle: H2O diffusion out

3. ascending limb of loop of henle: no H2O diffusion, Na+, Cl- out

4. H2O out of loop by osmosis due to high (salt) brine-bath outside loop

5. highest (solute) at bottom of loop

6. flows in descend and ascend limbs in oppostie directions, so countercurrent exchange

after loop:

filtrate:

-filtrate-->DCT, more H2O reabsorbs; then goes to the collecting duct, more H2O reabsorbs, and 50% of urea passes out, increasing (solute) of urea-brine bath

-all collective ducts-->renal plevis-->ureter-->urinary bladder-->urethra-->out

-humans can reabosrb 99% of water; kangroo rat has longer loop..doesn't need to drink

ectotherm:

endotherm:

hypothalamus:

estivation:

-heat from environment

-heat from metabolsim, insulation, shivering and vasoconstrictino of peripheral blood vessesl; Heat loss: panting, sweating, vasoldilation of peripheral blood vessels

-temperature-regulating center, like thermostat with fixed set point

-set point can rise/fall during hibernation or torpor(bats)

-summer dormancy (H2O)