Cell Theory

all life is composed of cells

Metabolism

all chemical reactions in an organism

macromolecules

carbs, lipids, proteins

homeostasis

constant internal environment (only for endothermic)

variability

example: different lengths in neck of giraffes thus shorter ones will die off if the trees aren't very green

three things for evolution

variability

natural selection

adaptation

artificial selection vs natural selection

people will grow certain animals with certain traits

vs

nature running its course

homologous structures

same origin, different function

examples: wing, arm, foreleg, flipper

Darwin's theory of evolution

1.Within species great variation exists

2. prolific reproduction

3. competition for resources, predation, disease 

4. survival of fittest by natural selection

5. natural selection

prolific reproduction

example: oysters give birth to 2,000 but only so many survive

natural selection

mechanism by which evolution occurs; differential survival and reproduction success

fittest

ability to survive; successful reproduction

prokaryotes

are bacteria and have no nuclei

budding

losing a piece of itself to turn into a new organism

communities

all things that are living in one area

ecosystem

biotic componenet and abiotic component 

biosphere

earth

Is a mule a species

No, because it cannot reproduce

Scientific Method

1. Make observations

2. ask questions

3. form hypothesis 

4. predictions based on hypothesis

5. test predictions, accept/reject hypothesis

Scientific Theory

1. testable

2. correctable

3. obersvable

4. new information about nature

Mechanisms of Evolution

1. variation in species exists

2. prolific reproduction

3. result: competitiong for resources

4. survival of the fittest

5. agent that produces change in species over time is Natural Selection

What happens when the population evolves?

Different genotypes survive and reproduce in different rates

population 

one species, at one time, in one place

what is necessary for a population to evolve?

genetic variation

adaptation

processes by which adaptive traits are required

allele

form of a gene

gene pool

all alleles found in population 

example: all genes in all the perches in one lake.

population genetics

genetic variation and it's causes in populations

stabilizing selection

less variation; cluster around mean

directional selection

mean changes; one extreme is the most fit

disruptive selection

more variation; bimodal; the new curve has a dip in the middle of the bell curve

For H-W what does A stand for?

dominant allele

For H-W what does the little a represent? 

recessive allele

For H-W what does p represent

number of copies of A in population divided by the sum of all of the alleles in population

For H-W what does q represent?

number of copies of a in population divided by the sum of all alleles in population

For H-W what does NAA mean?

number of individual that are homozygous for A 

For H-W what does NAa represent?

number of individuals heterozygous (Aa)

For H-W what does Naa represent?

number of individuals homozygous for a

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium 

p^2+2pq+q^2=1

What is the H-W assumption?

random mating; large populations; no migration between populations; no mutation

Evolutionary Agents

1. mutation

2. gene flow

3. genetic drift

4. nonrandom mating

5. natural selection

Mutation

changes in an individuals DNA

Gene Flow

exchange of genes between two different populations by breeding after migration

Genetic Drift

random loss of individuals & their alleles, may produce population bottleneck

Population bottleneck

When only a few members of the group have to repopulate the species

Founder effect

change in genetic variation when a few pioneering individuals colonize a new area

Nonrandom mating

if an individuals mate preferentialy with individuals of same genotype, then homozygotes overrepresented

Natural Selection

differential contribution of F1 to next generation by various genotypes in same population

-some individuals contribute more F1, more alleles to gene pool than others. allele frequencies in population change to adapt individuals to their environments

-fitness of phenotype = mean rates of survival and reproduction of individuals of that phenotype

phenotype

what an animal looks like

sexual selection

-results in conspicuous traits

-evolutiono f conspicuous traits in males to:

1. improve ability of males to compete for access to females (intrasexual selection)

2. make male more attractive to female (intersexual selection)

species

groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups

sexual dimorphism

same species but members may look different

ex. for ducks the males are brighter and more colorful while the females are a brown

speciation

one species splits into two new daughter species and evolve as seperate lineages

-speciation may be gradual or rapid

allopatric speciation

-requires a geographic barrier

-most important mode of speciation among animals

-river may separate individuals of population, prevent subpopulations from interbreeding (reproductive isolation)

-founder effect can also cause this

adaptive radiation

spreading out from one ancenstor

ex. to take advantage of the cactuses in the desert of the tall trees further up in the mountains

Darwin's finches

6 species feed on seeds

6 species feed on insects

1 species feeds on buds

sympatric speciation

partition of gene pool with out physical barriers

ex. some prefer going higher up the mountain and some prefer going lower

-less common than allopatric speciation

-most common = polyploidy

- 4N isolated from 2N, one viable gamete out of four

polyploidy

production in individual of duplicate sets of chromoseomes (mainly in plants)

population bottleneck

environmental upheaval--huge loss in allele diversity

ex. cheetah diversity loss.

peppered moths

1. gray form dominant on tree lichens

2. black form dominant on black (soot) tree

3. gray form dominant on tree lichens (after soot slowly went down)

symmetry

how parts of an arranged about an axis or point

asymmetry

no symmetry example sponges

bilateral

only one plane of symmetry

-all mammals, birds

radial

inifinite number of planes

cephalization

head end

-concentrated of nerve cells/sense organs in anterior end

unicellular level of organ

1. solitary (all by itself) ex. Paramecium

2. colonial: groups of cells with little interdependence or coordination ex. Volvox

diploblastic organization

1. 2 tissue layers:

ectoderm: outside layer
endoderm: inside layer

2. mesoglea: not a cellular thing, it's secreted by the surrounding cells ex. would be the jelly in jellyfish

triplostic organization

1. ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

2. acoelomate: no body cavity

3. pseudocoelomate: body cavity with out peritoneum(thin membrane that surrounds the coelom)

4. coelomate: true body cavity with peritoneum

2 types of coelomates

1. protostomes (stomes: opening to the inside of the animal) 1st opening is the mouth

schizocoelous coelom formation: coelom is formed by a split in the mesoderm

examples: mollusca, annelida, arthropoda

2. deuterostomes; 2nd opening is the mouth

enterocoelous coelom formation: coelom is formed by an outpocket of the gut

example: echniodermata, chordata

coelom

body cavity; houses all of the organs

nucleus

has a nuclear membrane and will contain chromosomes

cytoplasm

1. ectoderm: near the outside; more solid like jello

2. endoplasm: liquid and flows

example ameoba uses to the liquid flowage to move

water balance

contractile vacoules that forces the excess water and pushes out of the body like a sweat gland would

food vacoules

surround the food which causes a bag and then the food vacoule is in that bag

3 types of asexual reproduction

1. budding: a smaller piece of the larger animal/organism breaks off and forms a seperate individual

2. binary fission: one parent cell divides into two and creates two daughter cells
(longitudinal and transverse)

3. multiple fission/schizogony: many cells form from one parent cell example 50 from 1

conjugation in paramecium

form a protomasic bridge: exchanges DNA..micronuclei

definition of symbiosis and the three types

-two organisms that live together all the time

1. parasitism

2. commensalism

3. mutualism

parasitism

one organism benefits (parasite) and the other is harmed (host) example tapeworms

commensalism

one organism benefits and one is unaffected. example whale with barnacle attached to the whale

mutualism

both organisms benefit. example termites lack digestive fluid that breaks down the wood, but they have a protozoan that lives inside of their stomach that generates the digest fluid to break down the wood. the protozoan is protected and is fed

how do we distinguish the phylums

based on movement

Phylum Mastigophora
movement?

lower classifications?

flagella: long whip like structures that extend from the organism (corkscrew shape) (only up to 8 for an organism)

Class Phytomastigophora: photosynthesis ex. Genus Euglena

Class Zoomastigophora: no photosynthesis ex. Genus Trypanosoma(gives african sleeping sickeness-attacks the blood)

KPCOFGS

Kingdom (King)

Phylum (Phillip)

Class (Came)

Order (over)

Family (from)

Genus (Germany)

Species (swimming)

Phylum Sarcodina
movement?

lower classifications?

pseudopodia(false feet)

Genus Amoeba-naked, does not have a test

Order Foraminifera: test made out of CaCO3

Order Radiolaria: test made out of SiO2..circular organism

Phylum Apicomplexa

movement?

lower classifications?

no locomotive organelles; moves by the (blood) flow

Genus Plasmodium-sexual reproduction occurs in the mosquito and then schizongony-asexual reproduction that occurs in the humans

Phylum Ciliophora

movement?

lower classifications?

cilia--oars on a rowboat, hairlike, dozens of them

Genus Paramecium: sexual reproduction by conjugation

Genus Stentor

tissue

groups of cells with the same functions. example: muscle tissues

Kingdom Animalia origin

choanoflagellate protists

Phylum Porifera (simplest)

movement?

sessile..attached to the bottom of an ocean or lake

no tissues but cell aggregations

asymetrical: no matter where cut no mirror images

choanocytes: collar cells..with in the flagellum

spicules: forms the skeleton of the sponge..not all have them

Three types of sponges

1. spicule made out of CaCO3 (most common)

2. spicule made out of SiO2

3. spongin protein (spongin fibers)

ostia/ostium

in flow of water in sponges (on the side of the spong everywhere)

osculum

out flow of water (on the top of the sponge)

ambeoid cells

act like a circulatory system

water for sponges

provides everything; brings in food particles, brings dissolved oxygen, sperm is produced and relseased through the water and then fertilizes a different sponge that produces eggs; carries away waste from the products

Phylum Cnidaria characteristics:

diploblastic (in embryo endoderm and ectoderm) tissue level

mesoglea(not cellular; cellular secretion) between (both adult) epidermis and gastrodermis: lining of the digestive tract

radial symmetry, no cephalization: no concentration of nerve cells

nerve net..all around the organism is equally responsive

circle of tentacles around moth

polyp

sessile; tentacles facing the bottom

medusa

motile; tentacles face upwards

cnidocyte

stinging cell

two parts: nematocyst and cnidocil

nematocyst

the stucture for injecting the poison example the snakes fangs

cnidocil

trigger to set off the nematocyst

ectoderm forms

epidermis (outer body wall)

endoderm forms

gastrodermis (lines gastrovascular cavity); incomplete digestive tract (no anus, no intestines, waste goes back out mouth)

gastrovascular cavity

enzymes inside that break down the large food molecules

obelia life cycle

medusa--->egg & sperm-->fertilization--->zygote

-->blastula--->planula--->sessile-->polyp-->budding

-->medusa

Two types of polyps

1. feeding polyps

2. reproductive polyps

medusa buds grow into

ephyra..only the most mature and furtherist out

obelia has what kind of generation scheme

alternating generations between two different types of polyps

Class Hydrozoa

three genuses

1. Hydra--fresh water, attachs to water pipes, only polyp

2. Obelia--marine, velum: shelf-like, feeding polyps and reproductive polyps

3. Physalia--marine water, velum

*velum only in hydrozoa class*

Class Scyphozoa

genus?

Aurelia

medusa dominates life cycle: planula-->budding polyp(stobila), ephyra

Class Anthozoa

sea anemonea, corals

only polyps, NO medusa, marine

protandry

andro

male

protandry

single structure first serves as a testes to make sperm, and then later on makes eggs

stony corals

CaCO3 skeleton forms reef

Phylum Platyhelminthes

defining information

triploblastic: ectoderm, mesoderm (first phylum with), and endoderm

first phylum wiht cephalization: concentration of nerve cells in the head: ganglia

pharynx is mid-ventral:in the middle of the body is the opening for the digestive tract

primitive eye spots

organ-system level of organization

gastrovascular cavity; incomplete digestive tract; NO ANUS

Phlyum Platihelminthes

types?

1. Free-Living Flatworms

2. FLUKES

3. Class Tapeworms

Free-Living Flatworms characteristics

-bilateral symmetry 

-first cephalization

-ladder-like nervous system

-primitive eye spots: can only tell if light or dark

-reproduction: transer binary fission: cut themselves at the waist and re grow

-monoecious/hermaphroditic: has both male and female parts

Types of Flukes 

1. Genus Fasciola

2. Genus Clonorchis

Genus Fasciola life cycle

egg (all of the embroynic stages) in water-->miracidium (1st larval stage) enter snail (intermediate host)--> 2nd larval stage; sporocyst, 3rd lavaral stage; redia, 4th larval stage; cercaria leaves the snail, encysts (to form a water resistant outer covering; to prevent drying out) on grass--->metacercaria (adult stage) is eaten by sheep (definitive host)-->excysts (pops open outer covering) in stomach-->nom nom liver

Genus Clonorchis life cycle

eggs in feces goes to water-->egg containing miracidium-->miracidium goes into snail (first intermediate snail) sporocyst, redia and cercaria (2nd, 3rd and 4th larval stage both develop here)-->cercaria; free-swimming stage--->fish; encysts in fish-->piece of infected fish containing metacercaria (5th larval stage)-->human(definitive host) eats infected raw fish

Tapeworms

-parasetic in  vertebrate intestines

-body lack mouth & digestive tract, absorbs nutrients through body wall

-body; scolex(head like region) for attachment, neck, series of proglottids (baby tapeworm things) (the 'segments' of the worm) maturest = farthest down

-scolex:hooks, suckers attach to mucosa

-each proglottid has male and female gonads

phlyums in the protostomes

mollusca: snails, clams, squid

annelida: earthworms

arthropoda: insects, spiders, ticks

dueterostomes phylums

echniodermata

chordata

excretory system for platyhelminthes

flame cells (function to get rid of water waste and nitrogenous waste) containing waving cilia and protonephria