animal size and shape

determined by physical laws and the environment

-exchange materials between organism and outside

-small animals have sufficient surface area for chemical exchange

-larger animals have 2 or a few layers to allow for diffusion

-large animals have complex folded internal organs for material exchange

digestive

circulatory

respiratory

immune and lymphatic

excretory

endocrine

reproductive

nervous

integumentary

skeletal

muscular

digestive system main functions

food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)

levels of organization

animal form and function correlate at microscopic levels too

-cells

-tissues

-organs

-systems

1. epithelial

2. connective

3. nervous

4. muscle

covers surface and lines cavities

tight junctions

protects agains mech injury, disease, fluid loss

attached to a basement membrane

named by # layers and cell shape

e.g. mucous membranes (resp. system)

-sparse cell population in extensive matrix

-blind and support other tissues

-three types of fibers

~collagen:resist stretching (bendable)

~elastic: stretch

~reticular:branched-->holds connective tightly to adjacent tissues

-e.e.:loose, adipose, fibrous, cartilage, bone, blood

cuboidal-thyroid gland

simple columnar-intestines

pseudostratified-mucous membrane that lines nasal passages

stratified squamous-outer skin

simple squamous-air sacs of lungs

loose connective

2 types of cells

-fibroblasts: secrete fibers

-macrophages: immune defense

-chondrocytes (collagen and chondroitin sulfate):strong/flexible

-retained in adults in nose, ears, trachea, lyrnx, ribs, intervertebral disks

blood

osteocytes-bone maintanance cells

osteoblasts-bone building cells

osteoclasts-bone degrading cells

nervous tissue

neurons-star shaped

neuroglia-support neurons 

skeletal-voluntary movement

cardiac-involuntary movement

smooth-organs involuntary

metabolic rates

energy used by animal to stay alive or a specific activity

-calories=amount of heat needed to raise 1g of water 1degree C

*measured by O2 consumption

*heat loss

basal metabolic rate BMR

generate heat metabolically 

-birds mammals

-male human BMR:1600-1800 kcal/day

-female human BMR: 100-1500 kcal/day

an organism's body varies with the temperature of the environment

(invertebrates, most fish, amphibians, reptiles

metabolic rate (per gram)

inversely related to body size

-smaller need more energy/gram

-both ectotherms and endotherms

-not simply due to SA/Volume

begins with glycose

ATP=energy currecy of the cell/matter that contains alot of energy

with ox=32-34 ATP (arobic)

w/o ox=2 ATP (anerobic/fermentation)

metabolic rates

big animals=down

-males=up

-older=down

*other forms

body temp

env. temp

activity level

hormones

amount of available O2

homeostasis

maintenance of set certain condition

receptor-control center-effector

-positive feedback response increases stimulus

ex. childbirth

-negative feedback response decreases stimulus

ex. high bp

nervous system=instantaneous but doesn't last long.

endocrine=delayed response but lasts longer

adv.-maintain high level of aerobic metabolism

dis adv-uses more energy than ectothermy

ectotherms adv/disadv

regulators/conformers

regulators-endotherm, homeotherm

conformers-ectotherm, poikilotherm

radiation-sun

evaporation-sweat

conduction-direct contanct

convection-heat carried by fluid

torpor

physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases

enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions

long-term torpor

body temp declines

short term torpor (summer)

survive high temps + low water supplies

unique to vertebrates

starts at neural crest, becomes part of jaw

neural crest

 cephalization

vertebral column

closed circ system

true craniate

haik ouichthye

bull shark

tiger shark

white shark

oceanic whitetip

austrailian

african

south american

parasite in gills of larger fish

attracted to ammonia from gills or urea in humans

have become lodged in human urethra

usually have lungs

no scales

moist skin

require water for eggs

cold blooded

gelatinous eggs

class amphibia

order Urodela or Order Caudata

salamander (chinese giant salamander 5'long)

carnivorous

terrestrial and aquatic

0,2,4 legs

some paedogenesis-larval characteristics in adult

some lungless

frogs and toads

larvae herbivorous

large hind legs

flick stick tongue

carnivorous

crypsis, aposomatic coloration-warning colors

vocal communication

order apoda

caecilians

limbless

almost blind

burrowers, aquatic

carnivorous

terrestrail and aquatic features

genes

Amniotes

repptiles, birds, mammals

hard shelled egg of live birth

amniotic membrane

amnion

allantois

chorion

yolk sac

protect/cushon egg

filter blood of metabolic waste

eggs lung (gas exchange)

contains yolk (nutrition) placenta if no egg

alligators crocodiles caymen

largest living reptiles

4 chambered heart

diaphragm

parental brooding behavior

carnivorous

unique mammalian features

hair

mammary glands

wombat; woodchuck

sugar glider; flying squirrel

marsupial mole; mole

tasmanian devil; wolverine

prehasal tail like hand or foot

nostrals on sides

lack a prehensile tail

down and front nostrils

1. homo sapiens

2. homo neanderthalensis

3. homo erectus

4. homo ergaster

5. homo habilis

ancestor of humans

human origis

2 hypothesis

a. multiregional-homo erectus went everywhere and became humans seperately

b. out of africa-one branch goes to africa that turns into humans and goes everywhere (goes well w humans were created at one specific time) (favored)

-name given by researchers to a woman who is defined as the matriliineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) for all currently living humans

-every mtDNA in every living person is derived from hers

lived about 140,000 years ago in Africa

-evidence for the out of africa hypoth

muscular post-anal tail

notochord

pharyngeal slits

dorsal hollow nerve chord