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| Serbian general who ambushed Austro-Hungarian forces in the Jadar Valley |
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| Russian general who committed suicide after disastrous loss at Tannenberg |
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| More experienced German general who replaced Prittwitz and routed Russians at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes |
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| German general who ordered a hasty retreat from Russian forces but was replaced by Hindenburg before his plan could be implemented |
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| Russian general who sustained massive casualties retreating from the Masurian Lakes |
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Russia’s Attack on Germany |
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| Two Russian armies, under generals Alexander Samsonov and Paul von Rennenkampf, crossed Germany’s border in East Prussia on August 17With the brunt of German forces focused on France, the Russians advanced quickly at first and soon threatened the regional capital of Königsberg (present-day Kaliningrad). |
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| German forces in the east struck back decisively at the invading Russian forces Two German armies engaged Samsonov’s forces atTannenberg on August 26. Eventually, weakened by constant pounding from German artillery, Samsonov’s troops were forced to retreat |
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| Le Petit Journal was a daily Parisiannewspaper published from 1863 to 1944. It was founded by Moïse Polydore Millaud. In its columns were published several serial novels of Émile Gaboriau and of Ponson du Terrail. |
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The Daily Mailwas Britain's first daily newspaper aimed at the newly literate "lower-middle class market resulting from mass education, combining a low retail price with plenty of competitions, prizes and promotional gimmicks",[3] and the first British paper to sell a million copies a day.[4]
It was, from the outset, a newspaper for women, being the first to provide features especially for them, and is the only British newspaper whose readership is more than 50% female.[5][6][7] |
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| It was one of the first papers to carry gossip, sports, and women's features, and the first newspaper in Britain to have a crossword. |
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| French philosopher. He was a founder of the discipline of sociologyand of the doctrine of positivism. He may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.Strongly influenced by the Utopian socialistHenri Saint-Simon, Comte developed thepositive philosophy in an attempt to remedy the social malaise of the French revolution, calling for a new social doctrine based on thesciences. |
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| saw thescientific method as replacing metaphysics in the history of thought, observing the circular dependence of theory and observation in science. |
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| Englishbiologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory ofevolution.[1] |
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| Englishnaturalist.[I] He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theorythat this branching pattern of evolutionresulted from a process that he called natural selection. |
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| Austrian[2] scientist and Augustinian friar who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the new science ofgenetics. Mendel demonstrated that theinheritance of certain traits in pea plants follows particular patterns, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance. |
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Spencer is best known for coining the concept "survival of the fittest", which he did in Principles of Biology (1864), after readingCharles Darwin's On the Origin of Species.[6]This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he also made use of Lamarckism.[1](is the idea that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring)
SOCIAL DARWINISM |
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| David Friedrich Strauss (or Strauß) (January 27, 1808, Ludwigsburg – February 8, 1874, Ludwigsburg) was a German theologian and writer. He scandalized Christian Europe with his portrayal of the "historical Jesus", whose divine nature he denied. His work was connected to the Tübingen School, which revolutionized study of the New Testament, early Christianity, and ancient religions. Strauss was a pioneer in the historical investigation of Jesus. |
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| The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined |
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David Strauss
What made Das Leben Jesu so controversial was Strauss's
characterization of the miraculous elements in the gospels as being "mythical" in character. Strauss's Das Leben Jesu closed a period in which scholars wrestled with the miraculous nature of the New Testament in the rational views of the Enlightenment. One group consisted of "rationalists", who found logical, rational explanations for the apparently miraculous occurrences; the other group, the "supernaturalists", defended not only the historical accuracy of the biblical accounts, but also the element of direct divine intervention. Strauss dispels the actuality of the stories as "happenings" and reads them solely on a mythic level. Moving from miracle to miracle, he understood all as the product of the early church's use of Jewish ideas about what the Messiah would be like, in order to express the conviction that Jesus was indeed the Messiah. With time the book created a new epoch in the textual and historical treatment of the rise of Christianity |
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| English Christian apologist,philosopher, and utilitarian. He is best known for his exposition of the teleological argumentfor the existence of God in his work Natural Theology, which made use of the watchmaker analogy (also see natural theology). |
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| Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche |
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| German philosopher, poet,composer and classical philologist. He wrotecritical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor,irony and aphorism.His key ideas include thedeath of God, perspectivism, theÜbermensch, amor fati, the eternal recurrence, and the will to power. Central to his philosophy is the idea of "life-affirmation", which involves an honest questioning of all doctrines that drain life's expansive energies, however socially prevalent those views might be.[22] |
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German for "Overman, Overhuman, Above-Human, Superman
Nietzsche posited the Übermensch as a goal for humanity to set for itself in his 1883 book Thus Spoke Zarathustra (German: Also Sprach Zarathustra). |
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| Elementary Education Act 1870 |
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| framework for schooling of all children between ages 5 and 12 in England and Wales. In areas served by school boards that had implemented by-laws requiring attendance, compulsory attendance until age 13 |
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also known as Balfour's Act, is an Act of theParliament of the United Kingdom affecting education in England and Wales.
abolished the 2568 school boards set up by the Elementary Education Act 1870, as well as all existing School Attendance Committees. Their duties were handed over to local borough or county councils, as Local Education Authorities (LEAs). There were 328 LEAs, which were given powers to establish new secondary and technical schools as well as developing the existing system of elementary schools. |
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voted during the French Second Republic
The Falloux Law of 15 March 1850 also extended the requirements of the Guizot Law of 1833, which had mandated a boys' schoolin each commune of more than 500 inhabitants, to require a girls' school in those communes.
The 1851 law created a mixed system, in which some primary education establishments were public and controlled by the state and others were under the supervision of Catholic congregations. |
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| set of French Laws which established free education (1881), then mandatory and laic education (1882). Jules Ferry, a lawyer holding the office of Minister of Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely credited for creating the modern Republican School (l'école républicaine). The dual system of state and church schools that were largely staffed by religious officials were replaced by state schools and lay school teachers. The educational reforms enacted by Jules Ferry are often attributed to a broader anti-clericalcampaign in France. |
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refers to German policies in relation to secularityand the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck.
"the attack on the church included a series of Prussian, discriminatory laws that made Catholics feel understandably persecuted within a predominantly Protestant nation." |
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Temporary regulations regarding the Jews (also known as May Laws) were proposed by minister of internal affairs Nikolai Ignatyev and enacted on May 15 (May 3 O.S.), 1882, by Tsar Alexander III of Russia. Originally, regulations of May 1882 were intended only as temporary measures until the revision of the laws concerning the Jews, but remained in effect for more than thirty years.
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| During his pontificate, he convened the First Vatican Council in 1869, which decreed papal infallibility. The Pope defined the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary, meaning that Mary wasconceived without original sin. Pius IX also granted the Marian title of Our Mother of Perpetual Help, a famous Byzantine icon fromCrete entrusted to the Redemptorist priests. In addition to this, Pius IX was also the last Pope to rule as the Sovereign of the Papal States, which fell completely to Italian nationalist armies by 1870 and were incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. He was beatified in 2000. |
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| Austrian physicist andphilosopher, noted for his contributions to physics such as the Mach number and the study of shock waves. As a philosopher of science, he was a major influence on logical positivism and through his criticism ofNewton, a forerunner of Einstein's relativity. |
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| German physicist who discovered quantum physics, initiating a revolution in natural science and philosophy. He is regarded as the founder of quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.[2] |
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| German-born theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution inphysics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physicsand one of the most prolificintellects in human history. |
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| French writer who is counted among the greatest Western novelists. He is known especially for his first published novel,Madame Bovary (1857), and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style. |
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| Gustave Flaubert's first published novel and is considered his masterpiece. The story focuses on a doctor's wife, Emma Bovary, who has adulterous affairsand lives beyond her means in order to escape the banalities and emptiness of provincial life. Though the basic plot is rather simple, even archetypal, the novel's true art lies in its details and hidden patterns. Flaubert was a notorious perfectionist and claimed always to be searching for le mot juste ("the right word"). |
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| French writer, the most important exemplar of the literary school of naturalism and an important contributor to the development of theatrical naturalism. He was a major figure in the political liberalization of France and in the exoneration of the falsely accused and convicted army officer Alfred Dreyfus, which is encapsulated in the renowned newspaper headline J'Accuse. |
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| 19th-century Norwegian playwright, theatre director, and poet. He is often referred to as "the father of prose drama" and is one of the founders of Modernism in the theatre. |
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| The play was controversial when first published, as it is sharply critical of 19th century marriage norms.[3] Michael Meyerargues that the play's theme is not women's rights, but rather "the need of every individual to find out the kind of person he or she really is and to strive to become that person."[4] In a speech given to the Norwegian Women's Rights League in 1898, Ibsen insisted that he "must disclaim the honor of having consciously worked for the women's rights movement," since he wrote "without any conscious thought of making propaganda," his task having been "the description of humanity."[5] The Swedish playwright August Strindberg attacked the play in his volume of short stories Getting Married (1884).[6] |
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Shaw published one of the first English descriptions with scientific names of several of the common Australian animals in his "Zoology of New Holland" (1794). He was among the first scientists to examine a platypus and published the first scientific description of it inThe Naturalist's Miscellany in 1799.
In the field of herpetology he described numerous new species of reptiles andamphibians.[1] |
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| Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes the modernist movement in the arts, its set of cultural tendencies and associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In particular the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by the horror of World War I, were among the factors that shaped Modernism. |
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English author, essayist, publisher, and writer of short stories, regarded as one of the foremost modernist literary figures of the twentieth century.
During the interwar period, Woolf was a significant figure in London literary society and a member of the Bloomsbury Group. Her most famous works include the novels Mrs Dalloway (1925), To the Lighthouse (1927) and Orlando (1928), and the book-length essay A Room of One's Own (1929), with its famous dictum, "A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction." |
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| A Room of One's Own is an extended essayby Virginia Woolf. First published on 24 October 1929,[1] the essay was based on a series of lectures she delivered at Newnham College andGirton College, two women's colleges atCambridge University in October 1928. While this extended essay in fact employs a fictional narrator and narrative to explore women both as writers of and characters in fiction, the manuscript for the delivery of the series of lectures, titled "Women and Fiction", and hence the essay, are considered non-fiction.[2] The essay is generally seen as a feminist text, and is noted in its argument for both a literal and figural space for women writers within a literary tradition dominated by patriarchy. |
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| In the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded arevolution in economic thinking, overturning the older ideas of neoclassical economicsthat held that free markets would in the short to medium term automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. Keynes instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. Following the outbreak of World War II, Keynes's ideas concerning economic policy were adopted by leading Western economies. During the 1950s and 1960s, the success of Keynesian economics resulted in almost all capitalist governments adopting its policy recommendations. |
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| French novelist, critic, and essayist best known for his monumental À la recherche du temps perdu (In Search of Lost Time; earlier translated as Remembrance of Things Past). It was published in seven parts between 1913 and 1927. |
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| Irish novelistand poet, considered to be one of the most influential writers in the modernist avant-garde of the early 20th century. Joyce is best known for Ulysses (1922), a landmark work in which the episodes of Homer's Odyssey are paralleled in an array of contrasting literary styles, perhaps most prominently the stream of consciousness technique he perfected. Other major works are the short-story collectionDubliners (1914), and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916) andFinnegans Wake (1939). His complete oeuvre includes three books of poetry, a play, occasional journalism, and his published letters. |
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| Freud went on to develop theories about theunconscious mind and the mechanism ofrepression, and established the field of verbalpsychotherapy by creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathologythrough dialogue between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst. |
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| Swiss psychiatristand the founder of analytical psychology. Jung is considered the first modern psychiatrist to view the human psyche as "by nature religious" and make it the focus of exploration.[1] Jung is one of the best known researchers in the field of dream analysis and symbolization. While he was a fully involved and practicing clinician, much of his life's work was spent exploring tangential areas, including Eastern and Western philosophy,alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well asliterature and the arts. |
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| Weber's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes ofrationalisation, secularization, and "disenchantment" that he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Weber argued that the most important difference among societies is not how people produce things but how people think about the world. In Weber’s view, modern society was the product of a new way of thinking. |
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| Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau |
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| French aristocrat, novelist and man of letters who became famous for developing the theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races(1853–1855). De Gobineau is credited as being the father of modern racial demography. |
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| An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races |
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| by Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau was intended as a work of philosophical enquiry into decline and degeneration. It is today considered as one of the earliest examples of scientific racism. |
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| British-born German author of books on political philosophy,natural science and the German composerRichard Wagner; he is described in the OxfordDictionary of National Biography as a "racialist writer".[citation needed] He later became a German citizen. In December 1908, twenty-five years after Wagner's death, Chamberlain married Wagner's daughter, Eva von Bülow. Chamberlain's two-volume book, Die Grundlagen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century)[1], published in 1899, became one of the many references for the pan-Germanic movement of the early 20th century, and, later, of thevölkisch antisemitism of Nazi racial policy. |
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| The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century |
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| best-selling work by Houston Stewart Chamberlain. In it he advances various racist and especially völkisch antisemitic theories on how he saw theAryan race as superior to others, and the Teutonic peoples as a positive force in European civilization and the Jews as a negative one. Chamberlain was a germanophile who adopted German citizenship and wrote most of his works in German (on numerous subjects, from biographies to biology). |
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New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe's powers and, later, Japan and theUnited States, during the 19th and early 20th centuries; expansion took place from the French conquest of Algeria until World War I: approximately 1830 to 1914. The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of overseas territorial acquisitions.
The qualifier "new" is to contrast with the earlier wave of European colonization from the 15th to early 19th centuries. |
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| The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa orPartition of Africa[1] was a process of invasion, occupation, colonization and annexation ofAfrican territory by Europeanpowers during the New Imperialism period, between 1881 and World War I in 1914. As a result of the heightened tension between European states in the last quarter of the 19th century, the partitioning of Africa may be seen as a way for the Europeans to eliminate the threat of a Europe-wide war over Africa.[2]The last 59 years of the 19th century saw transition from 'informal imperialism' of control through military influence and economic dominance to that of direct rule.[3] |
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| The Open Door Policy is a concept in foreign affairs, which usually refers to the policy in 1898 allowing multiple Imperial powers access to China, with none of them in control of that country.The open door policy stated that all European nations, and the United States, could trade with China. |
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| The Monroe Doctrine is a policy of the United States introduced on December 2, 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention.[1] The Doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. |
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| The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spainand the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessionsled to involvement in thePhilippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine-American War.[6] |
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| League of the Three Emperors |
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| unstable alliance between Tsar Alexander II of Russia,Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary and Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany. |
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| treaty between Russia and theOttoman Empire signed at the end of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78. |
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| Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) |
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| The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen inBerlin in 1878. In the wake of theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–78, the meeting's aim was to reorganize the countries of the Balkans. |
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| The Dual Alliance was a defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, which was created by treaty on October 7, 1879 as part of Bismarck's system of alliances to prevent/limit war. In it, Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to aid one another in case of an attack by Russia. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be France, especially after the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894). |
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| The Triple Alliance was the military alliance betweenGermany, Austria–Hungary, and Italy, (as opposing theTriple Entente which consisted of an alliance between Britain, France and Russia), that lasted from 1882[1] until the start of World War I in 1914.[2] Each member promised mutual support in the event of an attack by any other great powers, or for Germany and Italy, an attack by Francealone. |
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| attempt by GermanChancellor Otto von Bismarck to continue to ally with Russia after theLeague of the Three Emperors had broken down in the aftermath of the 1885 Serbo-Bulgarian War. |
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| the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empireand the Kingdom of Prussia from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. An ineffective war leader, he lost the support of the army, abdicated in November 1918, and fled to exile in the Netherlands. |
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| military alliance between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire that ran from 1892 to 1917. The alliance ended the diplomatic isolation of France and undermined the supremacy of the German Empire in Europe. France would remain the principal ally of Russia until 1917, from an economical, financial and military point of view. |
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| German Admiral, Secretary of State of the German Imperial Naval Office, the powerful administrative branch of the German Imperial Navy from 1897 until 1916. Tirpitz took the modest Imperial Navy and, starting in the 1890s, turned it into a world-class force that could threaten the British Royal Navy. His navy, however, was not strong enough to confront the British successfully in World War I; the one great navalBattle of Jutland was a draw. Tirpitz turned to submarine warfare, which antagonized the United States. He was dismissed in 1916 and never regained power. |
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two wars fought between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics, the Oranje Vrijstaat (Orange Free State) and theRepubliek van Transvaal (Transvaal Republic).
The First Anglo-Boer War (1880–1881), was a rebellion of Boers(farmers) against British rule in the Transvaal that re-established their independence. The conflict occurred against the backdrop of the Pretoria government becoming increasingly ineffective at dealing with growing claims on South African land from rival interests within the country.
The Second War (1899–1902), by contrast, was a lengthy war—involving large numbers of troops from many British possessions, which ended with the conversion of the Boer republics into British colonies |
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| The Entente Cordiale was a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and the French Republic. Beyond the immediate concerns ofcolonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente Cordiale marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent conflict between the two nations and their predecessor states, and the formalisation of the peaceful co-existence that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. |
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| was the international crisis over the international status of Morocco between March 1905 and May 1906. Germany resented France's increasing dominance of Morocco, and insisted on anopen door policy that would allow German business access to its market. Kaiser Wilhelm II set his eyes on Morocco as it was a weak independent country, but it was in the French orbit. The Kaiser went toTangier and made a speech in favor of Moroccan independence. Isolated diplomatically, Germany called on U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt to mediate. An international conference met atAlgeciras, where 13 countries backed France and only Austria-Hungary backed Germany. Spain decided to establish international control over the police forces in the major ports of Morocco, a compromise solution that ended the crisis. Germany's reputation appeared as aggressive and dangerous to diplomats in Paris and London. |
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| was theinternational tension sparked by the deployment of the Germangunboat Panther, to the Moroccan port of Agadir on July 1, 1911 |
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| pitted the Balkan League (Serbia,Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria) against theOttoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success. As a result of the war, almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire were captured and partitioned among the allies. |
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The Second Balkan War was a conflict that broke out when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its share of the spoils of the First Balkan War, attacked its former allies Serbia and Greece, on 29 June 1913
The Second Balkan War led to the disintegration of the Russo-Bulgarian alliance, thus giving Serbia the upper hand as the only Russian ally in the Balkans. Emboldened by Russia's support, Serbia ignited theJuly crisis of 1914, and later maintained an uncompromising position against Austria-Hungarythat led to World War I.[8] |
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| secret military society formed by members of the Serbian army in the Kingdom of Serbia, which was founded on 6 September 1901.[2] It was intent on uniting all of the territories containing significant Serb populations annexed by Austria-Hungary.[3][4] Through its purported connections to the June 1914, assassination in Sarajevo of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, the Black Hand may have been one of the principal catalysts to the start of World War I. |
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Franz Ferdinand (18 December 1863 – 28 June 1914) was anArchduke of Austria-Este, Austro-Hungarian and Royal Prince ofHungary and of Bohemia, and from 1889 until his death, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne.[1] His assassinationin Sarajevo precipitated Austria-Hungary's declaration of waragainst Serbia. This caused the Central Powers (includingGermany and Austria-Hungary) and the Allies of World War I(countries allied with Serbia) to declare war on each other, starting World War I.[2][3][4]
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German General Staff's early 20th century overall strategic plan for victory in a possible future war in which theGerman Empire might find itself fighting on two fronts: France to the west and Russia to the east. The First World War later became such a war, with both a Western Front and an Eastern Front.
In modified form, it was executed to near victory in the first month of the war. However, the modifications to the original plan, a French counterattack on the outskirts of Paris (the Battle of the Marne), and surprisingly speedy Russian offensives ended the German offensive and resulted in years of trench warfare. |
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| Trench warfare occurred when a military revolution in firepower was not matched by similar advances in mobility, resulting in a grueling form of warfare in which the defense held the advantage. In World War I, both sides constructed elaborate trench and dugout systems opposing each other along a front, protected from assault by barbed wire. The area between opposing trench lines (known as "no man's land") was fully exposed to artillery fire from both sides. Attacks, even if successful, often sustained severe casualties as a matter of course. |
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| Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill |
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| Churchill was First Lord of the Admiralty at the start of the First World War, but was obliged to leave the war cabinet after the disastrous Battle of Gallipoli. He attempted to obtain an appointment as a brigade commander, but settled for command of a battalion. After spending some time as a Major with the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards, he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel, commanding the 6th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers (part of the 9th (Scottish) Division), on 1 January 1916. |
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| February/March Revolution 1917 |
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| Its immediate result was the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, the end of theRomanov dynasty, and the end of the Russian Empire |
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| Russian Provisional Government |
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| The government replaced the institution of the Council of Ministers of Russian Empire, members of which after the February Revolution presided in the Chief Office of Admiralty. The intention of the provisional government was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention. |
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| The Mensheviks (Russian: Меньшевик, Russian pronunciation: [mʲɪnʲʂᵻˈvʲik]) were a faction of the Russianrevolutionary movement that emerged in 1904 after a dispute between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov, both members of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party. The dispute originated at the Second Congress of that party, ostensibly over minor issues of party organization |
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