1. The US

2. France 

1. It has zero calories

2. It is 300x sweeter than regular sugar

3. It has a bitter aftertaste, so other substances must be added. 

You can control the RISK, but you cannot control the HAZARD.

Hazard: inherent potential of something being harmful, 

Risk: measure of how that potential is expressed,

Susceptibility: i.e, antelope higher risk of getting eaten by a Lion than a mous

THEREFORE: RISK = HAZARD x EXPOSURE x SUSCEPTIBILTY

1. Sorbitol

2. Mannitol

3. Xylitol 

 -0.6x less than sugar.

-Calories: 1.3/gram

-Not easily metabolized

-Can ferment in colon and cause explosive diarrhea

*BUT, gives bulk to a food: good for diet products

It is 180x sweeter than sugar, and has the same caloric content at 4cal/gram (b/c it is a peptide). 

But, since so little of it is needed to attain sweetness, calories aren't ingested in a normal serving. 

1. It is not heat stable, so if it sits in coffee for a while, the amino acids will break apart and the sweetness will start to vanish.

2. It can release methanol as a byproduct during metabolism, which can turn into formic acid. Methanol can cause blindness and death.  

1. A soft drink produces about 7mg.

2. 80 000 - 120 000mg of methanol is lethal.

Aspartame 

|

Phenylalanine

                     |                |

Phenylethylamine              Tyrosine

                                        |

                                    Catecholamines

Coke Zero has a mixture of Acesuflame K and Aspartame. Acesulflame K is useful: 200x sweeter with 0 calories, and when combined with aspartame, the bitter aftertaste is counteracted. 

1. It is 600x sweeter than sugar

2. It is mores table to heat than aspartame: it's man marketing tool

3. Good for cakes and other baked goods.

4. We should not take "made from sugar tastes like sugar" slogan seriously: Chlorine replacing OH groups makes the molecule completely different.

Stevia is the newest artificial sweetener.

It is extracted from Stevia Rebaudiana Plant. Since it's a natural substance it cannot be patented. 

It is allowed as an additive or sweetener in the US, but in Canada, is only available as a dietary supplement. 

1. As Truvia (developed by coca-cola)

2. As PureVia (developed by PepsiCo)

*Same substance, different branding.

Yes.

100% of chicken, and 93% of beef in fast food restaurants come from animals fed exclusively by corn-based diet.

1. Selection

-choosing best plants and mating them

2. Cross-breeding

-wheat x rye = triticale: benefits of both plants

3. Vertical Transfer

-exchanging genes between closely related species.

4. Horizontal Transfer 

-Newest technology. We can transfer genes btw unrelated species.

1. It can be transferred to mice to make them fluorescent under UV light,

2. This is an example of "horizontal transfer"

3. The scientists who did this won a Nobel Prize

Bases are the molecules that comprise the "backbone" of the DNA.

1. Adenine

2. Thymine

(paired together)

3. Guanine 

4. Cytosine 

(paired together)

Individual "building block" unites on DNA. Has:

1. A short backbone stretch

2. A sugar

3. The base that is involved with pairing to the opposite strand.

Therefore, genes are comprised of a long stretch of nucleotides in the DNA molecule.

By occupying a specific location on a chromosome. 

Because DNA strands are complimentary given the base pairs (A to T and G to C), the whole DNA molecule can be replicated with only one fully intact strand.

*Imagine a zipper. 

1. A particular gene is identified

2. It is then isolated with the use of enzymes

3. Last, it is inserted into a new organisms DNA

Insulin. The gene in humans that makes insulin has been transferred to bacteria to be the bacteria that produces insulin. 

It's identical to human insulin. 

Both are used in the process of making cheese.

1. Rennet is an extract found in the stomach of calves that has an enzyme to produce cheese. 

2. In 1990, Chymosin was made by isolating the gene representing the protein code, and putting into yeast cells to create the enzyme.

*All cheese is made through process (2) today, so vegetarians and Jewish people can eat cheese. 

The bacteria comprised of isolated genes that infects plants, and then the gene is transferred to the plant, producing whatever the gene encodes.

Increases:

1. Tomatoes lycopene 

2. monounsaturated fat in some oils

3. Omega-3 in flax seeds

4. Sulforaphane in broccoli  

1. Introduces pesticides, reduce contamination and increasing yield.

2. It is impossible to produce a sufficient amount of food without pesticides. 

*There are 10,000 insect species, 8000 fungi and 2000 weeds that halter food production. 

-It was "Black Flag": Black leaf without Nicotine

-It increased food production 3-fold, pesticide use 10-fold

-It kills mosquitos, so malaria fell from 3 million cases in 1946 in Sri Lanka, to only 17 cases in 1963.

DDT has a negative impact on the environment.

It is non-biodegratable and is fat soluble. 

-It affects calcium metabolism: birds who ate fish that had accumulated DDT laid fragile eggs. 

-Eagles came near extinct because of this.

-Eventually, insects were resistant to DDT. 

1. An estrogen mimic

2. Dangerous for: early puberty in girls, sperm count, testicular cancer, vaginal cancer and breast cancer.

--> in reality, we are more exposed to natural estrogenic compounds than synthetic compounds. 

-Congress wanted to find out why there were so many instances of Breast Cancer in women. 

-The greatest risk factor was wealth: delayed first pregnancy, fewer children. The richer you are, the later you will get married and you'll have fewer children. 

20,000.

Asian farmers most common weapon of suicide is pesticide. 

Plants produce their own pesticide to protect themselves against insects. 

We eat 10,000x more natural pesticides by weight than artificial pesticides.

Bacillus Thurengiensis. It isolates the Bt gene that encodes toxic proteins and it is introduced to certain crops; plants don't have to be sprayed. 

This is good because we can use pesticides only on plants that need protection. 

29 countries use GM crops. 5 countries make up 92% of the usage:

1. USA

2. Argentina

3. Canada

4. Brazil

5. India

1. It can transfer genes involved in allergies to certain crops and provoking an allergy to an unexpected food. 

...But, it can also reduce allergic reactions by removing a gene that causes the reaction. 

1. Toxicity to Non-Target Species (i.e Monarch butterfly)

2. Insects will become resistant

3. Gene transfer to related species (pollen flux: it can travel great distances to infect non GM species)

4. Biodiversity (Soya forest in Brazil; 50% of worlds crop and 90% is GM)

- He bought 1-years worth of Canola seeds from Monsanto. 

- He saved some of the seeds and planted them the next year

-He claimed the pollen flux from a neighbour next door kept his field in such good condition

-Upon appeal to the supreme court, Shmeiser argued that Monsanto should not have the right to patent seeds. 

-Court ruled 5-4 in favour of Monsanto. 

the "Perceived Risk" of food being dangerous:

-He went to Europe, noticed they ate many tomatoes

-Tomatoes weren't eaten at the time in US because they were in the same family as the "Belladonna Plant"

-He ate a tomato in front of the town to prove it was safe

-Some claim this started the tomato industry in NA

Real risk. 

-Saw a steel fork was coated with copper after mashing gooseberries in a pie.

-Gooseberries were adulterated with copper to make them green

-This was very toxic.

1. Chalk added to watered down milk to make it milkier-looking

2. Arsenic and boric acid sprinkled on meat and fish to retard spoilage

3. Copper salts added to veggies

4. Plaster of Paris

5. Indigo, a colouring agent was added to tea to make an intense colour while using less tea

-Unintentional toxin in food

-Pesticide used to treat cucumber

-If poisoned by Aldicarb, Cholinergic symptoms prevail. 

-There have been many causes of Aldicarb poisoning. 

-It is an unintentional toxin

-Mercury is in fish because when we burn coal, it is vaporized and ends up in fish's water.

-It is toxic in very small amounts

-It can significantly influence the development of babies in pregnant women

-Salmon is rarely contaminated with mercury.

-Ancient greeks made prisoners drink something from the Hemlock plant.

-The Hemlock plant contains naturally toxic conine. 

-It is chlorophyl from the potato trying to photosynthesize

-It has produced Solanine which can be toxic to protect itself against bugs

-A large amount of green potatoes could make you sick

Produces Muscarine, a toxin that can kill flies.

-It has killed people because people did not know they were toxic. 

Plant: The Fly Agaric Mushroom

-fungi cannot undergo photosynthesis

-they draw nutrients from the soil, organisms.

-fungi can produce toxic metabolites

1. Aflatoxin

2. Ochratoxin A

3. Patulin

4. Fusarium 

-A Mycotoxin

-One of the most potent carcinogens

-Countries where food preservation is not optimal, aflatoxin increases

-These same countries have a high rate of liver cancer. 

-Grows in mold on peanuts, corn and barley in moist conditions.

-It is broken down by Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)

-It is a Vasopressin: it can constrict blood vessels

-Someone taking MAO inhibitors can have interference with Tyramine

-Patients taking MAOi's will have high blood pressure if they eat too much cheese.

-Occurs after eating fish with high levels of histamine.

-It's an allergic reaction that causes burning, tingling and upper body itch

-Antihistamines can fix this reaction (benadryl) 

-Yes: it can cause Ciguatera Poisoning

-Ciguatera toxic originates from plants the barracuda eats.

-Ciguatera poisoning is shown by: nausea, vomiting, neurological problems, and usually occurs within 3-5 hours after consumption.

-The symptoms can last years after eating the fish! 

Mussels containing Domoic Acid.

Demoic acid is a neurotoxin found in algae which was taken in by the mussels.

-Pyrrolizidine alkaloids

-It is currently sold in health food stores because some people believe it has "healing power"

1. Type 1 - the body cannot produce insulin

2. Type 2 - the body does not respond to the insulin hormone

-A genetic condition wherein individuals cannot metabolize phenylalanine, which is necessary to produce proteins and enzymes

-It is linked to aspartame, and other foods with high phenylalanine content

-Phenylalanine will accumulate in the brain and cause mental retardation

-The lack of Lactase, which is an enzyme that breaks down Lactose into Glucose and Galactose. 

-By giving milk and testing for hydrogen gas in their breath after consumption. The hydrogen gas is produced by intestinal bacteria that decomposes the lactose.

-Lactaid tablets can be taken for lactose intolerance. 

Hereditary Fructose Intolerance

"Fructose-1-Phosphate Aldolase Deficiency" is?

-Causes hypoglycemia: low levels of glucose. 

-It can cause seizures.

-People suffering from this disease hate sweets.

-"Sorbitol" sweetens sugar-free gum by a fructose derivative, and thus should be avoided by patients suffering from Heredity Fructose Intolerance. 

Gliadin.

-Gliadin is seen as a "foreign" and the immune system mistakenly attacks. Cytokines, involved in this response, damages villi (proteins in the intestines)

-Malabsorption of other nutrients, causing:

-Stunted growth

-Lightly coloured, bulky, smelly and sticky

-Anemia

-Lack of folic acid, calcium and protein. 

-Discovered patients got better when not eating bread, and bread was more difficult to find during the war

Endoscopic biopsy:

-Anti-Gliadin antibody test (but only 50% show damaged villi upon biopsy)

-Anti-Tissue Transglutaminase test (detects 80-90% - but has a problem of false negatives: people who aren't gluten sensitive test positive)

-non-hodgkins lymphoma 

-osteoporosis

-headache/behavioural problems

-autism/neurological problems

-Person positive for Anti-Gliadin antibodies but has no symptoms 

-May affect 1/200 people. 

1. Swelling

2. Nausea 

3. Cramping

4. Diarrhea 

5. Eczema 

6. Itching

7. Vomiting

8. Flatulence 

9. Asthma 

10. Rhinits 

-A total collapse of the circulatory system, and can kill in as little as 4 minutes

-An "epi-pen" contains Adrenaline, which dilates the bronchial tubes enabling breathing and speeding the heart.

1. Always have an epi-pen within reach

2. Don't wholly entrust labels that say "peanut free"

3. The myth that allergic reactions trigger when someone kisses somebody who just ate peanuts is "probably not true" (really?)

By going on an elimination diet, which starts with lambs and cooked pears. 

If you find the culprit and stop eating it, you will express withdrawal symptoms. 

1. Tartrazine 

-a yellow food dye

2. Benzoates 

-preservative in soft drinks

-3. Sulfites 

-bad for people with asthma (!)

-4. MSG

-also bad for asthma

-5. Capsaicin 

-"salsa sniffles" -chilli peppers contain these! 

-nausea

-vomiting 

-abdominal cramps

-diarrhea

-fever

-headache 

Occurring 6 hours after consumption and can last 1-2 days.

No. But it can cause long lasting affects:

-heart problems

-chronic diarrhea 

-lactose intolerance

-reactive arthritis 

-precipitate food allergies (suggesting bacteria can cause lifelong allergies when infecting children)

Nausea 

Vomiting

Diarrhea

Fever

Abdominal Pain

Colstridium botulinum: 0.0000001 grams of this toxin can kill! 

-It can only replicate in the absence of air 

-It could grow in hot dogs/sausages, thus why nitrite is added

-Had to be closed due to hepatitis in many of their customers

-Traced back to shallots from Mexico that were grown using manure as fertilizer. 

-Symptoms can last for months, they are flu like including diarrhea and jaundice.

-Meat: is a sexual inflammatory

-Spices: are irritants

-Caffeine: is a stimulant 

-Alcohol

-Doctors

1. No additives

2. No chemical fertilizers

3. No synthetic pesticides 

4. No genetically modified components

1. Less pesticide residue

2. More nutrients

3. Environmental Concerns: this is the only scientifically supported argument to eat organic; less use = less pollution washed down into lakes and rivers. 

80%: fresh foods

90%: processed food

1. Copper Sulfate 

2. Rotenone (from derris plant, linked to Parkinson's disease)

3. Bacillus Thuringiensis

1. Variety Type

2. Soil Quality

3. Fertilizers 

4. Crop Rotation

5. Maturity at Harvest 

6. Transportation

-The FDA is money hungry

-Food was safer before science came into the picture

-They support "food combining"

-Woman should not orgasm during pregnancy because it cuts off oxygen to the fetus. 

Autumn crocus, which has an active ingredient colchinine for gout. 

-Said to have cholesterol and blood pressure lowering effects

-It is supposed to boost the immune system

-Occurs after the garlic is cooked or cut. 

-Cyclosporine is an immune suppressant

-When a man had a heart transplant, it seemed to not be working

-It neutralized by inducing Cytochrome p-450 enzymes, which breaks down cyclosporine. 

-A plant of south pacific origin

-Has some anxiety reducing properties

-In large doses it is linked with liver problems

-It is illegal in Canada

-Made natural food products have a product license 

-Production sites would be monitored 

-Good manufacturing practice

-Adverse reaction reporting

-Labeling 

-Safety

(*effectiveness is not a requirement)

-Many products aren't applying for a license and aren't being inspected. 

-He was a surgeon 

-He performed over 23000 of colon operations, taking peoples' colons out 

-He thought this would reduce their risk of getting sick. 

-A vibrating chair to "loosen" the insides.

-Fed people cereal and made them ride a saddle

-He had an enema machine and would pump people with galls of water and yogourt

1. Acidophilus

2. Bifidobacteria 

-A probiotic available as "Culturelle"

-Useful for treating from colitis, Crohn's, and IBS

-You need a few billion bacteria to get any benefits, and the product only has 1 billion per serving

-They were sued for millions of dollars for misleading people. 

-An effective probiotic 

-Fructose polymer, made up of 60 fructose units

-Chicory and Jerusalem artichoke are good sources.