Term
|
Definition
| Vladimir Ulyanov (1870–1924), who was the main leader of the Russian Revolution of 1917. |
|
|
Term
| Seizure of Constantinople 1453 |
|
Definition
| ): Constantinople, the capital and almost the only outpost left of the Byzantine Empire, fell to the army of the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II “the Conqueror” in 1453, an event that marked the end of Christian Byzantium. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1428 agreement between the Mexica and two other nearby city-states that launched the Aztec Empire. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1919 treaty that officially ended World War I; the immense penalties it placed on Germany are regarded as one of the causes of World War II. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : A clearly defined territory whose people have a sense of common identity and destiny, thanks to ties of blood, culture, language, or common experience |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : A period of cooling temperatures and harsh winters that lasted for much of the early modern era. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : A poet and king of the city-state of Texcoco, which was part of the Aztec Empire (1402–1472). |
|
|
Term
| Catholic Counter-Reformation |
|
Definition
| : An internal reform of the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century; thanks especially to the work of the Council of Trent (1545–1563), Catholic leaders clarified doctrine, corrected abuses and corruption, and put a new emphasis on education and accountability. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : An international movement that between approximately 1780 and 1890 succeeded in condemning slavery as morally repugnant and abolishing it in much of the world; the movement was especially prominent in Britain and the United States. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : An international movement that between approximately 1780 and 1890 succeeded in condemning slavery as morally repugnant and abolishing it in much of the world; the movement was especially prominent in Britain and the United States. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : Belief in a divine being who created the cosmos but who does not intervene directly in human affairs. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : City that developed high in the Andes (in present-day Bolivia) at the site of the world’s largest silver mine and that became the largest city in the Americas, with a population of some 160,000 in the 1570s. (pron. poh-toh-SEE) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : French head of state from 1799 until his abdication in 1814 (and again briefly in 1815); Napoleon preserved much of the French Revolution under an autocratic system and was responsible for the spread of revolutionary ideals through his conquest of much of Europe |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : Genoese mariner (1451–1506) commissioned by Spain to search for a new trading route to Asia; in 1492 he found America instead |
|
|
Term
| Latin American export boom |
|
Definition
| : Large-scale increase in Latin American exports (mostly raw materials and foodstuffs) to industrializing countries in the second half of the nineteenth century, made possible by major improvements in shipping; the boom mostly benefited the upper and middle classes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : List of ninety-five debating points about the abuses of the Church, posted by Martin Luther on the door of a church in Wittenberg in 1517; the Church’s strong reaction eventually drove Luther to separate from Catholic Christianity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : Major conflict between France and England (1337–1453) over rival claims to territory in France; the two states’ need to finance the war helped encourage their administrative development. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : Native-born elites in the Spanish colonies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : One of India’s most beloved bhakti poets (1498–1547), she helped break down the barriers of caste and tradition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : One of the most successful empires of India, a state founded by an Islamized Turkic group that invaded India in 1526; the Mughals’ rule was noted for their efforts to create partnerships between Hindus and Muslims |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : Pen name of the French philosopher François-Marie Arouet (1694–1778), whose work is often taken as a model of Enlightenment questioning of traditional values and attitudes; noted for his deism and his criticism of traditional religion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : Ruling dynasty of China from 1644 to 1912; the Qing rulers were originally from Manchuria, which had conquered China. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : Seminomadic people of northern Mexico who by 1325 had established themselves on a small island in Lake Texcoco, where they built their capital city, Tenochtitlán; the Mexica were the central architects of the Aztec Empire. |
|
|
Term
| North American Revolution |
|
Definition
| : Successful rebellion conducted by the colonists of parts of North America (not Canada) against British rule (1775–1787); a conservative revolution whose success assured property rights but established republican government in place of monarchy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military and political alliance founded in 1949 that committed the United States to the defense of Europe in the event of Soviet aggression. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : The focusing of citizens’ loyalty on the notion that they are part of a “nation” with a unique culture, territory, and destiny; first became a prominent element of political culture in the nineteenth century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : The main instrument of the Catholic Counter-Reformation (1545–1563), at which the Catholic Church clarified doctrine and corrected abuses |
|
|
Term
| Indian Ocean commercial network |
|
Definition
| : The massive, interconnected web of commerce in premodern times between the lands that bordered on the Indian Ocean (including East Africa, India, and Southeast Asia); the network was badly disrupted by Portuguese intrusion beginning around 1500 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| : U.S. navy commodore who in 1853 presented the ultimatum that led Japan to open itself to more normal relations with the outside world |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A European tendency, especially in African colonies, to identify and sometimes invent distinct “tribes” that had often not existed before, reinforcing European notions that African societies were primitive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A pattern of European racism in their Asian and African colonies that created a great racial divide between Europeans and the natives, and limited native access to education and the civil service, based especially on pseudo-scientific notions of naturally superior and inferior races. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A process of growth or increasing production and the distribution of the proceeds of that growth to raise living standards; nearly universal desire for economic development in the second half of the twentieth century reflected a central belief that poverty was no longer inevitable |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A series of reforms enacted by the Franklin Roosevelt administration between 1933 and 1942 with the goal of ending the Great Depression |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A struggle essentially to halt German imperial expansion in Europe, fought by a coalition of allies that included Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A struggle essentially to halt Japanese imperial expansion in Asia, fought by the Japanese against primarily Chinese and American foes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A subject of debate among scholars, the democracies established in the wake of decolonization in Africa proved to be fragile and often fell to military coups or were taken over by single-party authoritarian systems; Africa’s initial rejection of democracy has sometimes been taken as a sign that Africans were not ready for democratic politics or that traditional African culture did not support it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A term with its roots in European colonialism and imperialism that emphasizes viewing the world from a European perspective. Despite being influence by other cultures, it often seeks to show the superiority of Western customs over those of analagous cultures. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A worldwide scientific consensus that the increased burning of fossil fuels and the loss of trees have begun to warm the earth’s atmosphere artificially and significantly, causing climate change and leading to possibly catastrophic results if the problem is not addressed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A “rebirth” of classical learning that is most often associated with the cultural blossoming of Italy in the period 1350–1500 and that included not just a rediscovery of Greek learning but also major developments in art, as well as growing secularism in society. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Acronym for the Soviet government agency that administered forced labor camps. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Afrikaans term literally meaning “aparthood”; the system that developed in South Africa of strictly limiting the social and political integration of whites and blacks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Agricultural production, often on a large scale, of crops for sale in the market, rather than for consumption by the farmers themselves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Agricultural system based on African slavery that was used in Brazil, the Caribbean, and the southern colonies of North America. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Also called the Terror, the Great Purges of the late 1930s were a massive attempt to cleanse the Soviet Union of supposed “enemies of the people”; nearly a million people were executed between 1936 and 1941, and 4 million or 5 million more were sentenced to forced labor in the gulag |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Also known as Afrikaners, the sector of the white population of South Africa that was descended from early Dutch settlers. |
|
|
Term
| Revolutionary Right (Japan) |
|
Definition
| Also known as Radical Nationalism, this was a movement in Japanese political life ca. 1930–1945 that was marked by extreme nationalism, a commitment to elite leadership focused around the emperor, and dedication to foreign expansion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| American political movement in the period around 1900 that advocated reform measures to correct the ills of industrialization. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An alliance consisting of Germany, Austria, and Italy that was one of the two rival European alliances on the eve of World War I. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An alliance consisting of Russia, France, and Britain that was one of the two rival European alliances on the eve of World War I. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An application of the concept of “survival of the fittest” to human history in the nineteenth century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An approach to the world economy, developed in the 1970s, that favored reduced tariffs, the free movement of capital, a mobile and temporary workforce, the privatization of industry, and the curtailing of government efforts to regulate the economy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An archipelago of Pacific islands colonized by Spain in a relatively bloodless process that extended for the century or so after 1565, a process accompanied by a major effort at evangelization; the Spanish named them the Philippine Islands in honor of King Philip II of Spain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An economic theory that argues that governments best serve their states’ economic interests by encouraging exports and accumulating bullion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Armed retainers of the Japanese feudal lords, famed for their martial skills and loyalty; in the Tokugawa shogunate, the samurai gradually became an administrative elite, but they did not lose their special privileges until the Meiji restoration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Association of scientists established in England in 1660 that was dedicated to the promotion of “useful knowledge.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Austrian doctor and the father of modern psychoanalysis (1856–1939); his theories about the operation of the human mind and emotions remain influential today. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Belief system typical of the middle class that developed in Britain in the nineteenth century; it emphasized thrift, hard work, rigid moral behavior, cleanliness, and “respectability.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bold economic program launched in 1987 by Mikhail Gorbachev with the intention of freeing up Soviet industry and businesses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Born in 1919, Pahlavi was shah of Iran from 1941 until he was deposed and fled the country in 1979; he died in 1980 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| British working-class political party established in the 1890s and dedicated to reforms and a peaceful transition to socialism, in time providing a viable alternative to the revolutionary emphasis of Marxism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Capital of the Spanish Philippines and a major multicultural trade city that already had a population of more than 40,000 by 1600. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Charismatic leader of the Italian fascist party (1883–1945) who came to power in 1922 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| China’s Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was a massive campaign launched by Mao Zedong in the mid-1960s to combat the capitalist tendencies that he believed reached into even the highest ranks of the Communist Party; the campaign threw China into chaos. |
|
|
Term
| self-strengthening movement |
|
Definition
| China’s program of internal reform in the 1860s and 1870s, based on vigorous application of Confucian principles and limited borrowing from the West. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chinese dynasty (1368–1644) that succeeded the Yuan dynasty of the Mongols; noted for its return to traditional Chinese ways and restoration of the land after the destructiveness of the Mongols |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chinese religious leader (1814–1864) who sparked the Taiping Uprising and won millions to his unique form of Christianity, according to which he himself was the younger brother of Jesus, sent to establish a “heavenly kingdom of great peace” on earth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Colonies in which the colonizing people settled in large numbers, rather than simply spending relatively small numbers to exploit the region; particularly noteworthy in the case of the British colonies in North America. |
|
|
Term
| Iroquois League of Five Nations |
|
Definition
| Confederation of five Iroquois peoples in what is now New York State; the loose alliance was based on the Great Law of Peace, an agreement to settle disputes peacefully through a council of clan leaders. |
|
|
Term
| Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen |
|
Definition
| Document drawn up by the French National Assembly in 1789 that proclaimed the equal rights of all men; the declaration ideologically launched the French Revolution. |
|
|
Term
| Russo-Japanese War, 1904–1905 |
|
Definition
| Ending in a Japanese victory, this war established Japan as a formidable military competitor in East Asia and precipitated the Russian Revolution of 1905 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| English natural scientist (1643–1727) whose formulation of the laws of motion and mechanics is regarded as the culmination of the Scientific Revolution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ernesto “Che” Guevara was an Argentine-born revolutionary (1928–1967) who waged guerrilla war in an effort to remedy Latin America’s and Africa’s social and economic ills |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Euphemistic expression for the often-forcible transformation of society when a communist regime came to power in a state. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| European intellectual movement of the eighteenth century that applied the lessons of the Scientific Revolution to human affairs and was noted for its commitment to open-mindedness and inquiry and the belief that knowledge could transform human society |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Feudal lords of Japan who retained substantial autonomy under the Tokugawa shogunate and only lost their social preeminence in the Meiji restoration. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Feudal lords of Japan who ruled with virtual independence thanks to their bands of samurai warriors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| First leader of the Haitian Revolution, a former slave (1743–1803) who wrote the first constitution of Haiti and served as the first governor of the newly independent state. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| For much of the eighteenth century, well-made and inexpensive cotton textiles from India flooded Western markets; the competition stimulated the British textile industry to industrialize, which led to the eventual destruction of the Indian textile market both in Europe and in India. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Form of government that arose in the United States in response to the cold war and in which defense and intelligence agencies gained great power and power in general came to be focused in the executive branch |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Form of imperial dominance based on control of trade rather than on control of subject peoples |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey (1881–1938); as military commander and leader of the Turkish national movement, he made Turkey into a secular state. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| French representative assembly called into session by Louis XVI to address pressing problems and out of which the French Revolution emerged; the three estates were the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fundamentalist Hindu movement that became politically important in India in the 1980s by advocating a distinct Hindu identity and decrying government efforts to accommodate other faith groups. (pron. hin-DOOT-vah) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| German philosopher (1818–1883) whose view of human history as a class struggle formed the basis of socialism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| German priest and theologian (1483–1546) who inaugurated the Protestant Reformation movement in Europe. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| German war with France (1870–1871) that ended with the defeat of France and the unification of Germany into a single state under Prussian rule. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Germany as ruled by Hitler and the Nazi Party from 1933 to 1945, a fascist state dedicated to extreme nationalism, territorial expansion, and the purification of the German state. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Great Chinese admiral (1371–1433) who commanded a fleet of more than 300 ships in a series of voyages of contact and exploration that began in 1405. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Great European intellectual and cultural transformation that was based on the principles of the scientific method |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Group of would-be reformers in the mid-nineteenth-century Ottoman Empire that included lower-level officials, military officers, and writers; they urged the extension of Westernizing reforms to the political system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Growing disparity between the Global North and the Global South that appears to be exacerbated by current world trade practices |
|
|
Term
| Franz Ferdinand, Archduke |
|
Definition
| Heir to the Austrian throne whose assassination by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914, was the spark that ignited World War I. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Highly destructive war (1618–1648) that eventually included most of Europe; fought for the most part between Protestants and Catholics, the conflict ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Highly influential English biologist (1809–1882) whose theory of natural selection continues to be seen by many as a threat to revealed religious truth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hindu devotional movement that flourished in the early modern era, emphasizing music, dance, poetry, and rituals as means by which to achieve direct union with the divine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Huge U.S. government initiative to aid in the post–World War II restoration of Europe that was masterminded by U.S. secretary of state George Marshall and put into effect in 1947 |
|
|
Term
| Khomeini, Ayatollah Ruholla |
|
Definition
| Important Shia ayattolah (advanced scholar of Islamic law and religion) who became the leader of Iran’s Islamic revolution and ruled Iran from 1979 until his death in 1989. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Important reform measures undertaken in the Ottoman Empire beginning in 1839; the term “Tanzimat” means “reorgani-zation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Impoverished black neighborhood outside Johannesburg, South Africa, and the site of a violent uprising in 1976 in which hundreds were killed; that rebellion began a series of violent protests and strikes that helped end apartheid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In Japan, a supreme military commander. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In many colonial states, a process of forging new ways of belonging and self-identification that defined and to some extent mythologized the region’s past, especially to create broader terms of belonging than had existed before. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In prerevolutionary France, the term used for the 98 percent of the population that was neither clerical nor noble, and for their representatives at the Estates General; in 1789, the Third Estate declared itself a National Assembly and launched the French Revolution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In the Spanish colonies of Latin America, the term used to refer to people who had been born in Spain; they claimed superiority over Spaniards born in the Americas. |
|
|
Term
| Kyoto protocol on global warming |
|
Definition
| International agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in an effort to slow global warming; as of November 2007, 174 countries had subscribed to the agreement, but the United States’ refusal to ratify the protocol has caused international tensions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| International body representing 149 nations that negotiates the rules for global commerce and is dedicated to the promotion of free trade. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| International peacekeeping organization and forum for international opinion, established in 1945. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| International peacekeeping organization created after World War I; first proposed by U.S. president Woodrow Wilson as part of his Fourteen Points. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| International terrorist organization of fundamentalist Islamic militants, headed by Osama bin Laden |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Italian astronomer (1564–1642) who further developed the ideas of Copernicus and whose work was eventually suppressed by the Catholic Church |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large number of movements in Islamic lands that promote a return to strict adherence to the Quran and the sharia in opposition to key elements of Western culture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Late-nineteenth-century American political movement that denounced corporate interests of all kinds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Leader of China from 1976 to 1997 whose reforms essentially dismantled the communist elements of the Chinese economy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Leader of India’s All-India Muslim League and first president of the breakaway state of Pakistan (1876–1948). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Leader of the German Nazi Party (1889–1945) and Germany’s head of state from 1933 until his death. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. (pron. ni-KEE-tah KROOSH-chef ) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Leader of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991 whose efforts to reform the USSR led to its collapse. |
|
|
Term
| Congo Free State/Leopold II |
|
Definition
| Leopold II was king of Belgium from 1865 to 1909; his rule as private owner of the Congo Free State during much of that time is typically held up as the worst abuse of Europe’s second wave of colonization, resulting as it did in millions of deaths. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Literally, “crystal night”; name given to the night of November 9, 1938, when Nazi-led gangs smashed and looted Jewish shops throughout Germany. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Literally, “mixed”; a term used to describe the mixed-race population of Spanish colonial societies in the Americas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Literally, “truth force”; Mahatma Gandhi’s political philosophy, which advocated confrontational but nonviolent political action |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long and bloody war (1911–1920) in which Mexican reformers from the middle class joined with workers and peasants to overthrow the dictator Porfirio Díaz and create a new, much more democratic political order |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long revolutionary process in the period 1912–1949 that began with the overthrow of the Chinese imperial system and ended with the triumph of the Communist Party under the leadership of Mao Zedong. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major Chinese initiative (1958–1960) led by Mao Zedong that was intended to promote small-scale industrialization and increase knowledge of technology; in reality, it caused a major crisis and exacerbated the impact of a devastating famine. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major Islamic movement led by the Muslim theologian Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) that advocated an austere lifestyle and strict adherence to the sharia (Islamic law). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major Islamic state centered on Anatolia that came to include the Balkans, the Near East, and much of North Africa. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major Islamic state of West Africa that formed in the second half of the fifteenth century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major Turkic empire of Persia founded in the early sixteenth century, notable for it efforts to convert its populace to Shia Islam. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major international conflict (1854–1856) in which British and French forces defeated Russia; the defeat prompted reforms within Russia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major international movement that protests the development of the global economy on the grounds that it makes the rich richer and keeps poor regions in poverty while exploiting their labor and environments; the movement burst onto the world stage in 1999 with massive protests at a meeting of the World Trade Organization in Seattle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1962 over Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba; the confrontation ended in compromise, with the USSR removing its missiles in exchange for the United States agreeing not to invade Cuba. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Major state that developed in what is now Mexico in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; dominated by the seminomadic Mexica, who had migrated into the region from northern Mexico. |
|
|
Term
| Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution |
|
Definition
| Mao Zedong’s great effort in the mid-1960s to weed out capitalist tendencies that he believed had developed in China |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Massive Chinese rebellion that devastated much of the country between 1850 and 1864; it was based on the millenarian teachings of Hong Xiuquan. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Massive dislocation of French society (1789–1815) that overthrew the monarchy, destroyed most of the French aristocracy, and launched radical reforms of society that were lost again, though only in part, under Napoleon’s imperial rule and after the restoration of the monarchy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Massive revolutionary upheaval in 1917 that overthrew the Romanov dynasty in Russia and ended with the seizure of power by communists under the leadership of Lenin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Massive schism within Christianity that had its formal beginning in 1517 with the German priest Martin Luther; while the leaders of the movement claimed that they sought to “reform” a Church that had fallen from biblical practice, in reality the movement was radically innovative in its challenge to Church authority and its endorsement of salvation “by faith alone.” |
|
|
Term
| Indian Rebellion, 1857–1858 |
|
Definition
| Massive uprising of much of India against British rule; also called the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny from the fact that the rebellion first broke out among Indian troops in British employ. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanical device in which the steam from heated water builds up pressure to drive a piston, rather than relying on human or animal muscle power; the introduction of the steam engine allowed a hitherto unimagined increase in productivity and made the Industrial Revolution possible. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mexican dictator from 1876 to 1911 who was eventually overthrown in a long and bloody revolution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mikhail Gorbachev’s policy of “openness,” which allowed greater cultural and intellectual freedom and ended most censorship of the media; the result was a burst of awareness of the problems and corruption of the Soviet system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Military alliance of the USSR and the communist states of Eastern Europe during the cold war. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Military dictator of Chile from 1973 to 1990 who was known for his widespread use of torture and for liquidating thousands of opponents of his regime |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Military rulers of Japan who successfully unified Japan politically by the early seventeenth century and established a “closed door” policy toward European encroachments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Movement of Turkish military and civilian elites that developed ca. 1900, eventually bringing down the Ottoman Empire |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Movement that claimed that women have value in society not because of an abstract notion of equality but because women have a distinctive and vital role as mothers; its exponents argued that women have the right to intervene in civil and political life because of their duty to watch over the future of their children. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mughal emperor (r. 1658–1707) who reversed his predecessors’ policies of religious tolerance and attempted to impose Islamic supremacy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Muslim port city that came to prominence on the waterway between Sumatra and Malaya in the fifteenth century C.E.; it was the springboard for the spread of a syncretic form of Islam throughout the region. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Name assumed by Joseph Vissarionovich Jugashvili (1878–1953), leader of the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death; “Stalin” means “made of steel.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Name commonly given to the journey across the Atlantic undertaken by African slaves being shipped to the Americas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Name commonly used for the Nazi genocide of Jews and other “undesirables” in German society; Jews themselves prefer the term Shoah, which means “catastrophe,” rather than Holocaust (“offering” or “sacrifice”). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Name originally given to the First World War |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Name that revolutionaries gave to the former French colony of Saint Domingue; the term means “mountainous” or “rugged” in the Taino language |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Name used for the process of the European countries’ partition of the continent of Africa between themselves in the period 1875–1900 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Named for a conference held at Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, this system provided the foundation for postwar economic globalization, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund; based on the promotion of free trade, stable currencies, and high levels of capital investment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Native American people of northeastern North America who were heavily involved in the fur trade. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Native-born elites in the Spanish colonies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Native-born elites in the Spanish colonies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Native-born elites in the Spanish colonies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Native-born elites in the Spanish colonies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nickname used in the early modern period for animal furs, highly valued for their warmth and as symbols of elite status; in several regions, the fur trade generated massive wealth for those engaged in it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Occurring within all the major world religions, fundamentalism is a self-proclaimed return to the “fundamentals” of a religion and is marked by a militant piety and exclusivism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Organization established in 1885 by Western-educated elite Indians in an effort to win a voice in the governance of India; over time, the INC became a major popular movement that won India’s independence from Britain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ottoman sultan (r. 1876–1909) who accepted a reform constitution but then quickly suppressed it, ruling as a reactionary autocrat for the rest of his long reign. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| People whose lands were east of the Niger River in what is now southern Nigeria in West Africa; they built a complex society that rejected kingship and centralized statehood and relied on other institutions to provide social coherence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Period from 1300-1650 in which weapons that utilized gunpowder to fire projectiles gained prominence in militaries throughout the world. These gunpowder weapons gave those possessing them a distinct advantage over those without them, aiding in the growth of numerous empires. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times, propelling Western Europe into a position of global dominance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Plan of U.S. president Woodrow Wilson to establish lasting peace at the end of World War I; although Wilson’s views were popular in Europe, his vision largely failed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Polish mathematician and astronomer (1473–1543) who was the first to argue for the existence of a heliocentric cosmos. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Political and ideological state of near-war between the Western world and the communist world that lasted from 1946 to 1991 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Political ideology marked by its intense nationalism and authoritarianism; its name is derived from the fasces that were the symbol of magistrates in ancient Rome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Portuguese explorer (ca. 1460–1524) whose 1497–1498 voyage was the first European venture to reach India by circling the tip of South Africa. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| President of the United States from 1913 to 1921 who was especially noted for his idealistic approach to the end of World War I, which included advocacy of his Fourteen Points intended to regulate future international dealings and a League of Nations to enforce a new international order. Although his vision largely failed, Wilson was widely respected for his views. |
|
|
Term
| British/Dutch East India companies |
|
Definition
| Private trading companies chartered by the governments of England and the Netherlands around 1600; they were given monopolies on Indian Ocean trade, including the right to make war and to rule conquered peoples. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Process in which many African and Asian states won their independence from Western colonial rule, in most cases by negotiated settlement with gradual political reforms and a program of investment rather than through military confrontation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Process of rural reform undertaken by the communist leadership of both the USSR and China in which private property rights were abolished and peasants were forced onto larger and more industrialized farms to work and share the proceeds as a community rather than as individuals |
|
|
Term
| Africanization of Christianity |
|
Definition
| Process that occurred in non-Muslim Africa, where millions who were converted to Christianity sought to maintain older traditions alongside new Christian ideas; many converts continued using protective charms and medicines and consulting local medicine men, and many continued to believe in their old gods and spirits. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Properly known as the National Socialist Democratic Workers’ Party, the Nazi party was founded in Germany shortly after World War I and advocated a strongly authoritarian and nationalist regime based on notions of racial superiority. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Religious tradition of northern India founded by Guru Nanak ca. 1500; combines elements of Hinduism and Islam and proclaims the brotherhood of all humans and the equality of men and women. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Revolutionary leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008 who gradually turned to Soviet communism and engendered some of the worst crises of the cold war. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Rising of Chinese militia organizations in 1900 in which large numbers of Europeans and Chinese Christians were killed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Rulers of Japan from 1600 to 1868 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Russian revolutionary party led by Vladimir Lenin and later renamed the Communist Party; the name “Bolshevik” means “the majority.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Series of Jesuit missionaries in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who, inspired by the work of Matteo Ricci, made extraordinary efforts to understand and become a part of Chinese culture in their efforts to convert the Chinese elite, although with limited success. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Series of laws passed by the Nazi-dominated German parliament in 1935 that forbade sexual relations between Jews and other Germans and mandated that Jews identify themselves in public by wearing the Star of David. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Series of nineteenth-century treaties in which China made major concessions to Western powers. |
|
|
Term
| Latin American revolutions |
|
Definition
| Series of risings in the Spanish colonies of Latin America (1810–1826) that established the independence of new states from Spanish rule but that for the most part retained the privileges of the elites despite efforts at more radical social rebellion by the lower classes. |
|
|
Term
| Declaration of the Rights of Woman |
|
Definition
| Short work written by the French feminist Olympe de Gouges in 1791 that was modeled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and that made the argument that the equality proclaimed by the French revolutionaries must also include women. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Social stratum that developed in Britain in the nineteenth century and that consisted of people employed in the service sector as clerks, salespeople, secretaries, police officers, and the like; by 1900, this group comprised about 20 percent of Britain’s population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| South African movement that sought to foster pride, unity, and political awareness among the country’s African majority and often resorted to violent protest against white minority rule. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| South African nationalist (b. 1918) and leader of the African National Congress who was imprisoned for twenty-seven years on charges of treason, sabotage, and conspiracy to overthrow the apartheid government of South Africa; he was elected president of South Africa in 1994, four years after he was finally released from prison. |
|
|
Term
| African National Congress |
|
Definition
| South African political party established in 1912 by elite Africans who sought to win full acceptance in colonial society; it only gradually became a popular movement that came to control the government in 1994. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Spaniards born in the Americas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Spanish conquerors of the Native American lands, most notably the Aztec and Inca empires. |
|
|
Term
| Russian Revolution of 1905 |
|
Definition
| Spontaneous rebellion that erupted in Russia after the country’s defeat at the hands of Japan in 1905; the revolution was suppressed, but it forced the government to make substantial reforms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Standard Spanish coin that became a medium of exchange in North America, Europe, India, Russia, and West Africa as well as in the Spanish Empire; so called because it was worth 8 reales. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sweeping series of reforms instituted by communist leader Alexander Dubcek in Czechoslovakia in 1968; the movement was subsequently crushed by a Soviet invasion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| System of forced labor used in the Netherlands East Indies in the nineteenth century; peasants were required to cultivate at least 20 percent of their land in cash crops, such as sugar or coffee, for sale at low and fixed prices to government contractors, who then earned enormous profits from further sale of the crops. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term commonly used for people of mixed African and European blood. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term commonly used to describe areas such as Latin America and China that were dominated by Western powers in the nineteenth century but that retained their own governments and a measure of independence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term commonly used to describe areas that were dominated by Western powers in the nineteenth century but that retained their own governments and a measure of independence, e.g., Latin America and China. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term commonly used to refer to the massive growth in international economic transactions from around 1950 to the present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term often used, along with “specie drain,” to describe the siphoning of money from Europe to pay for the luxury products of the East, a process exacerbated by the fact that Europe had few trade goods that were desirable in Eastern markets; eventually, the bulk of the world’s silver supply made its way to China. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term that Karl Marx used to describe the industrial working class; originally used in ancient Rome to describe the poorest part of the urban population. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term that Karl Marx used to describe the owners of industrial capital; originally meant “townspeople.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term used by modern militant Islamic groups to denote not just the “struggle” or “striving” that the word originally meant but also the defense of authentic Islam against Western aggression |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term used to describe Latin America’s economic growth in the nineteenth century, which was largely financed by foreign capital and dependent on European and North American prosperity and decisions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Term used to describe the revolutionary violence in France in 1793–1794, when radicals under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre executed tens of thousands of people deemed enemies of the revolution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Territorial state that emerged by the fifteenth century in the region that is now southern Nigeria; ruled by a warrior king who consolidated his state through widespread conquest. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The All-India Muslim League, created in 1906, was a response to the Indian National Congress in India’s struggle for independence from Britain; the League’s leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, argued that regions of India with a Muslim majority should form a separate state called Pakistan. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Chinese Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-shek from 1928 until its overthrow by the communists in 1949 |
|
|
Term
| European Economic Community |
|
Definition
| The EEC (also known as the Common Market) was an alliance formed by Italy, France, West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in 1957 and dedicated to developing common trade policies and reduced tariffs; it gradually developed into the European Union. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Japanese army’s systematic killing, mutilation, and rape of the Chinese civilian population of Nanjing in 1938. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Protestant minority in France |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Western Hemisphere’s largest imperial state in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries; built by a relatively small community of Quechua-speaking people (the Inca), the empire stretched some 2,500 miles along the Andes Mountains, which run nearly the entire length of the west coast of South America, and contained perhaps 10 million subjects. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The collapse of China’s imperial order, officially at the hands of organized revolutionaries but for the most part under the weight of the troubles that had overwhelmed the government for the previous half-century. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The continuance of gathering and hunting societies in substantial areas of the world despite millennia of agricultural advance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The elected representative assembly grudgingly created in Russia by Tsar Nicholas II in response to the 1905 revolution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The final step in a series of arrangements to increase cooperation between European states in the wake of World War II; the EU was formally established in 1994, and twelve of its members adopted a common currency in 2002 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The first organized women’s rights conference, which took place at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The first prime minister of independent India (1889–1964). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The fundamentalist phenomenon as it appeared in U.S. politics in the 1970s. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The leader of al-Qaeda terrorist organization, a wealthy Saudi Arabian who turned to militant fundamentalism. (pron. oh-ZAHM-ah bin LAWD-n) responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks that included the Twin Towers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The main beneficiaries in Asian and African lands colonized by Western powers; schooled in the imperial power’s language and practices, they moved into their country’s professional classes but ultimately led anticolonial movements as they grew discouraged by their inability to win equal status to the colonizers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The massive transatlantic interaction and exchange between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia that began in the period of European exploration and colonization. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The massive transatlantic interaction and exchange between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia that began in the period of European exploration and colonization. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The metropolitan capital of the Aztec Empire, with a population of 150,000–200,000 people. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The most famous emperor of India’s Mughal Empire (r. 1556–1605); his policies are noted for their efforts at religious tolerance and inclusion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The most influential proponent of socialism, Marx (1818–1883) was a German expatriate in England who advocated working-class revolution as the key to creating an ideal communist future. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The only fully successful slave rebellion in world history; the uprising in the French Caribbean colony of Saint Domingue (later renamed Haiti) was sparked by the French Revolution and led to the establishment of an independent state after a long and bloody war (1791–1804). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The overthrow of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan in 1868, restoring power at long last to the emperor Meiji. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The quickening of global economic transactions after World War II, which resulted in total world output returning to the levels established before the Great Depression and moving beyond them |
|
|
Term
| The Armenian Genocide (1915-1923) |
|
Definition
| The systematic annihlation of 1.5 million indegenous Armenian population of Eastern Turkey by the Committee of Union and Progress the dominant Young Turk political party. The Genocide aimed at homogenization of Anatolia and the uprooting of the Armenian Question. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The tribute of boy children that the Ottoman Turks levied from their Christian subjects in the Balkans; the Ottomans raised the boys for service in the civil administration or in the elite Janissary infantry corps. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The warrior elite of medieval Japan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The weak government that replaced the German imperial state at the end of World War I; its failure to take strong action against war reparations and the Great Depression provided an opportunity for the Nazi Party’s rise to power. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The “Great War” (1914–1918), in essence a European civil war with global implications that was marked by massive casualties, the expansion of offensive military technology beyond tactics and means of defense, and a great deal of disillusionment with the whole idea of “progress.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tsar of Russia (r. 1689–1725) who attempted a massive reform of Russian society in an effort to catch up with the states of Western Europe. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Turkic warrior (1336–1405), also known as Tamerlane, whose efforts to restore the Mongol Empire devastated much of Persia, Russia, and India. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Twentieth-century movement to preserve the natural world in the face of spiraling human ability to alter the world environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Two wars fought between Western powers and China (1839–1842 and 1856–1858) after China tried to restrict the importation of foreign goods, especially opium; China lost both wars and was forced to make major concessions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Usually referred to by his soubriquet “Mahatma” (Great Soul), Gandhi (1869–1948) was a political leader and the undoubted spiritual leader of the Indian drive for independence from Great Britain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Wall constructed by East German authorities in 1961 to seal off East Berlin from the West; it was breached on November 9, 1989 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| War that requires each country involved to mobilize its entire population in the effort to defeat the enemy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Wave of anticommunist fear and persecution that took place in the United States in the 1950s |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Western Europe’s unkind nickname for the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a name based on the sultans’ inability to prevent Western takeover of many regions and to deal with internal problems; it fails to recognize serious reform efforts in the Ottoman state during this period. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Women’s rights movement that revived in the 1960s with a different agenda than earlier women’s suffrage movements; second-wave feminists demanded equal rights for women in employment and education, women’s right to control their own bodies, and the end of patriarchal domination. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Worldwide economic depression that began in 1929 with the New York stock market crash and continued in many areas until the outbreak of World War II. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the devastating demographic impact of European-borne epidemic diseases on the Americas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the spread of African peoples across the Atlantic via the slave trade |
|
|
