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| Ottoman sultan (1789-1807); attempted to improve administrative efficiency and build a new army and navy; assassinated by Janissaries. |
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| 19th Ottoman sultan who built a private, professional army; crushed the Janissaries and initiated reforms on Western precedents. |
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| Western-style reforms within the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876; included a European-influenced constitution in 1876. |
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| Ottoman sultan (1878 1908) who tried to return to despotic absolutism; nullified constitution and restricted civil liberties. |
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| members of the Ottoman Society for Union and Progress: intellectuals and political agitators seeking the return of the 1876 constitution; gained power through a coup in 1908. |
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| rulers of Egypt under the Ottomans; defeated by Napoleon in 1798; revealed the vulnerability of the Muslim world. |
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| controlled Egypt by 1811; began a modernization process based on Western models but failed to greatly change Egypt; died in 1848. |
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| descendants of Muhammad Ali and rulers of Egypt until 1952. |
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| built to link the Mediterranean and Red seas; opened in 1869; British later occupied Egypt to safeguard their financial and strategic interests. |
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| al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh |
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| Muslim thinkers in Egypt during the latter part of the 19th century; stressed the need for adoption of Western scientific learning and technology and the importance of rational inquiry within Islam. |
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| student of Muhammad Abduh; led a revolt in 1882 against the Egyptian government; forced the khedive to call in British aid. |
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| Muhammad Achmad, the leader of a Sudanic Sufi brotherhood; began a holy war against the Egyptians and British and founded a state in the Sudan. |
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| successor of the Mahdi; defeated and killed by British General Kitchener in 1898. |
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| united the Manchus in the early 17th century; defeated the Ming and established the Qing dynasty. |
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| Qing ruler and Confucian scholar (1661-1722); promoted Sinification among the Manchus. |
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| wealthy group of merchants under the Qing; specialized in the import-export trade on China's south coast. |
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| 19-century Chinese official charged during the 1830s with ending the opium trade in southern China; set off the events leading to the Opium War. |
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| fought between Britain and Qing China beginning in 1839 to protect the British trade in opium; British victory demonstrated Western superiority over China. |
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| massive rebellion in southern China in the 1850s and 1860s led by Hong Xinquan; sought to overthrow the Qing dynasty and Confucianism. |
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| conservative dowager empress who dominated the last decades of the Qing dynasty |
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| popular outburst aimed at expelling foreigners from China; put down by intervention of the Western powers. |
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| last Qing ruler; deposed in 1912. |
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