Physical Activity Readiness Questionairre

*identifies risk for cardiovascular complications

*designed for individuals planning to do light to moderate exercise

*works as a flow chart to determine need for medical clearance prior to beginning an exercise program

diet in which there is:

• underconsumption
• overconsumption
• unbalanced consupmtion of nutrients
• leads to disease or increase susceptibility of

Carbohydrates

Fat

Protein

Vitamins

Minerals

Water

nutrient composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

essential source of energy

3 categories:

monosaccharides (glucose & fructose)

disaccharides (lactose and sucrose)

polysaccharides (complex carbohydrate - starches & fiber)

when carbohydrate is stored in the body, glucose molecules join together to form large glycogen molecules.

Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal muscle.

45-65% of a person's daily calories recommended from carbohydrates

RDA 130g/day

Majority should come from complex carbs

Reason - higher nutrient density

Dietary Fiber

nonstarch polysaccharide found in plants

cannot be broken down by the human digestive system

helps prevent hemorrhoids, constipation, and cancer of the digestive system

water-soluable fiber helps lower cholesterol

AI for men/women 50 and below is 38g and 25g/day

Older men/women 30g and 21g

sources grains, vegetables, legumes, fruits

Carbohydrates 45-65%

Fats 20-35%

Protein 10-35%

primary fuel source for ATP production

broken down yields 4 kcal energy/gram

essential to healthy diet

vital functions:

• temperature regulation
• protect vital organs
• distribution of some vitamins
• energy production
• formation of cell membranes

• primary storage form of fat in body
• large molecules composed of 3 fatty acid chains connected to a glycerol backbone.
• majority are stored in adipose cells (can also be found in skeletal muscle)
• aerobic metabolism of triglycerides provides energy needed during rest and low-intensity exercise.
• 1 g of fat yields 9 kcal energy

• comes primarly from animal sources
• typically solid at room temp
• plant sources include palm oil, coconut oil and cocoa butter.
• limit to no more than 10% of total calories

Health Screening Questionairre

*identifies cardiovascular, metabolic & pulmonary disease risk

*identifies lifestyle behaviors leading to disease risk

*lists current medications

*includes a patient information release form - in compliance with HIPAA

*if any statements are marked in section 2 - clients should consult a physician b4 pursuing regular exercise program

*if high BP only symptom checked & on medication - does not require physician consent.

*physician consent of 2 or more statements are marked in section 3 & client wants to pursue vigorous intensity

type of omega-3 fatty acid

cannot be made by the body

must be consumed in the diet

AI is 1.6g/day men and 1.1g/day women

sources fish, walnuts and canola oil

omega-6 fatty acid

cannot be made by body, must be consumed in diet

AI 17g/day men and 12g/day women

sources include vegetable oils, nuts, avocados and soybeans

• composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygem and nitrogen
• all forms are combinations of amino acids
• found in both animal and plant sources
• animal sources meat, milk and eggs contain the essential amino acids
• plant sources beans, starchy vegetables, nuts and grains do not always contain all essential amindo acids
• RDA 0.8g protein for each kilogram body weight
• 1 g protein yields 4 kcal energy

• Carry oxygen (hemoglobin)
• Fight disease (antibodies)
• Catalyze reactions (enzymes)
• Allow muscle contraction (actin, myosin and troponin)
• Act as connective tissue (collagen)
• Clot blood (prothrombin)
• Act as a messenger (protein hormones such as growth hormones)

• 20 amino acids required by the human body
• most can be constructed from other substances in the body
• there are 8 essential amino acids that the body cannot synthesize and so must be part of one's regular diet

• organic substances essential to normal human body function.
• Do not contain energy for the body
• essential in metabolism of fat, carb & protein
• Body needs 14 vitamins for processes including:
• blood clotting
• protein synthesis
• bone formation

• 2 major classes
• fat soluble - chemical structure causes them to be transported and stored with lipids
• 4 fat-soluable are A, D, E & K
• stored in body, small daily intake recommended
• water soluble - not stored in large quantities in body, must be consumed daily
• Vitamin B & C
• Deficiencies scurvy (C) beriberi (thiamin)

• inorganic elements that serve a variety of functions in the body.
• Macrominerals (major) appear in largest quantities:
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Potassium
• Sulfur
• Sodium
• Chloride
• Magnesium

Also essential to normal body function

exist in smaller quantities

important in mineralization of bone, muscle contraction & transmission of nervous impulses.

Osteoporosis - disease decrease in total amount of bone mineral

RDA adults 19-50 1,000 mg/day

sources are milk, dark green vegetables and nuts

often underconsumed by american diet

• most prevalent nutrient deficiency in the US
• Critical component of hemoglobin and myoglobin
• Also necessary for functioning of immune system, formation of brain neurotransmiters, functioning of the electron transport chain.
• Daily need for iron
• Recommended intake men & postmenopausal women is 8 mg/day
• Females during childbearing years 18 mg/day
• Red meat and eggs are excellent sources of iron
• spinach, lima & navy bean, prune juice.
• Consuming vitamin C with meals increases ability to absorb iron

• Beta-carotene (precursor of Vitamin A)
• Vitamin C
• Vitamin E
• Free Radicals - antioxidant vitamins hypothesized to counteract the effects of aging and decrease liklihood of CVD/Cancer

• overconsumed mineral
• high sodium linked with hypertension
• AI is 1.5g/day
• limiting sodium will decrease BP

essential nutrient

constitutes approx 60% of the total body weight

creates environment in which all metabolic processes occurr.

Regulates temperature & transports substances throughout body.

AI 3.7L/day men and 2.7L/day women

approx. 80% of this amount comes from beverages.

primary risk factor is poor blood lipid profile

both diet and exercise can have positive affect

• Lipids are hydrophobic (not water soluble) need to bind with another substance to be transported in blood
• macromolecules composed of cholesterol, triglycerides, protein & phospholipids
• LDL - low-density lipoprotein - transport cholesteral and triglycerides from the liver to be used in various cellular processes
• HDL - high density lipoprotein - retrieves cholesterol from the cells and returns it to the liver to be metabolized

Sweat is primary way to dissipate heat during exercise.

Consume 5-7 ml/kg body weigh 4 hr prior to competition.

If no or dark urine, another 3-5 2 hours before.

Replacue fluid during

Athletes endurance 1.2 - 1.4 g protein/kilogram body weight.

Athletes high-intensity/high volume resistance 1-2-1.7g/kg

external influences that can be determined to enhance performance in high-intensity exercises.  Include mechanical aids (ex fabrics), pharmacological aids, shysiological aids, nutritional aids and psychological aids.

Iron & calcium most common deficiency amoung athletes.

condition characterized by:

inadequate calorie intake

menstrual irregularities

loss of bone mineral density (BMD) - estragen essential in maintaining strong bones in women.

1960's 13.4% of American adults obese - 2008 33.8%

non-Hispanic black women approx 50%

Lifestyle major culprit

Genetics - contributes 30-70% variation in obesity.

Lifestyle primary reason.

As altitude increases, the volume of oxygen carried in each liter of blood_____

Erector Spinae

Rectus abdominus

Quadratus lumborum

(all of the above)

keep the knee over the foot

maintain knee and foot alignment 

(not keep the knee beyond the foot)

Cause movement

Prevent movement

Decelerate movement

(all the above)

increasing energy

promoting phychological well being

benefitting physical health

(all the above)

develop relationship oriented abilities

serve as role models

accomodate differences

(all the above)

moving from one piece of exercise equipment to another

workout for muscular strength and endurance

can include flexibility, strength & endurance

(all the above)

Assessment

Self-monitoring

goal setting

(all the above)

fitness screening

exercise supervision

equipment orientation

(all the above)

medical history review

establishing whether physician consent is necessary

prescribed medications

(all the above)

empathy

genuineness

respect 

(all the above)

variety

focus on health-related physical activities

(not emphasis on intense competition)

The Fitnessgram assesses:

Cardiorespiratory fitness

flexibility

muscular strength

(all the above)

Which of the following is true?

Maximal exercise testing is not advised for pregnant women

(not - exercise compromises uterine blood flow in pregant women or exercise is shown to cause premature delivery)

adequate calcium intake

physical activity

adequate vitamin D intake

(all the above)

The optimal training intensity fo the average individual is approximately 20-30% Vo2R.

speed of contraction

resistance to fatigue

force

(all the above)

tarsals

carpals

air displacement plethysmography

skinfolds

biolectriacl impedance

(all the above)

disordered eating

osteoporosis

amenorrhea

(all the above)

cigarette smoking

total high cholesterol

physical inactivity

(all the above)

Intensity

Relative - describes the degree of effort required to expend that energy and is influenced by maximal aerobic power or cardiovascular fitness (VO2 max).  Relative intensity can be expressed as a percentage of VO2 max or a percentage of maximal heart rate (HRmax).  

Moderate - absolute intensity of 3 to 5.9 MET's & relative intensity of 40-59% VO2 max or 64-76% HRmax.

Vigorous - absolute intensity of 6 or more MET's& relative intensity of 69-84% VO2 max or 77-93% HRmax

*agility

*balance

*coordination

*power

*speed

*reaction time

Skill or performance related fitness are linked to games, sport, dance and so on

>200 considered high

however, important to know good/bad

HDL is good -- if it is 65 and LDL 135 then don't have to 

LDL <100 is optimal & 100-129 near optimal

HDL 60 & above is optimal

HDL considered low/risk less than 40 men and 50 women

*long bone

*shaft - made up of thick, compact bone surrounding the hollow medullary cavity

*characteristic shaft is longer that it is wide

*long bones serve as levers for movement

*part of long bone

*expanded ends

*composed of spongy bone with a thin outer layer of compact bone

Articular cartilage

*part of long bone

*thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the articulating surfaces (the surfaces of a bone that come into contact with another bone to form a joint)

*provides a smooth, low-friction surface and helps absorb shock

*part of long bone

*a fibrous membrane covering the entire bone (except where the articular cartilage is present)

*serves as an attachment site for muscle

the plates between the diaphyses and epiphyses are the growth areas where the cartilage is replaced by bone.

Bone growth continues in length and width until the epiphyseal plates are completely ossified.

"the replacement of cartilage with bone during growth.  Generally completed by the late teens"

*206 bones involved in human movement

*high mineral content of calcium & other minerals give bones rigidity

*protein content reduces brittleness

*4 classifications of bones - long, short, flat and irregular

*short ankle bones

*approximately as long as wide

*composition (internal trabecular bone covered with a thin outside layer of cortical bone) provides light weight and strength.

*ribs

*ilia (wings of pelvis)

*scapulae (shoulder blades

serve primarily as broad sites for muscle attachment.

*ilia & ribs protect internal organs

*flat bone

*wings of the pelvis

*flat bones

*shoulder blades

*muscle attachment

*irregular bone

*kneecap

*a sesamoid bone embedded in the quadriceps tendon at the knee

*lies vertically and divides the body into right and left parts

*flexion/extension (frontal axis)

*lies vertically however divides the body into anterior (toward or on the front of the body (ex the pectorals are on the anterior aspect of the body) and posterior (toward or on the back of the body - behind the rhomboids are on the posterior aspect of the body. parts

*abduction/adduction side flexion inversion/eversion

lies horizontally and divides the body into superior (toward the heard or upper part of a structure ex above the humerous is superior to the radius. and inferior (toward the lower part of a structure ex below the tibia is inferior to the femur) parts.

*int rotation/ext rotation, horizontal flexion/extension, supination/pronation

*perpendicular to the frontal plane

*joint rotations - abduction and adduction occur around this axis

*perpendicular to the transverse plane

*internal and external rotation occur in this plane

*perpendicular to the sagittal plane

*joint rotation about this axis are flexion and extension

*tough, fibrous bands of connective tissue 

*connect bones to each other across all joints.

*3 types

*Synarthrodial - immovable joints (ex skull)

*Amphiarthrodial - or cartilaginous - allow only slight movement between bones -- ex tibiofibular and sacroiliac joints and joints between the bodies of the vertebrae in the spine.

*Diarthrodial joints - more commonly known as synovial joints are freely movable joints that allow greater movement direction and range.  Include most of the joints of extremeties

The partial, C-shaped discs between the femur and the tibia at the knee are call menisci.

sacs of synovial fluid that lie between muscles, bursae are found around the shoulder, elbow, hip and knee.

*Bursitis or the imflammation of a bursa, can result from repeated friction or mechanical irritation.

Flexion

*brings distal and proximal segments together

*occurs in the sagittal plane, around the mediolateral axis

*moves distal and proximal segments away from each other

*is the return from flexion, moving the segment in the opposite direction.

*occurs in the sagittal plane around the mediolateral axis.

moving the distal segment out to the side away from the body from the anatomical position (away from the midline)

*occurs in the frontal plane, about the anteroposterior axis.

*return toward the anatomical position from abduction, moving the segment in the opposite direction.

*moves a body segment toward the midline

*occurs in the frontal plane, about the anteroposterior axis.

*turning a segment toward the midline of the body from the anatomical position

*occurs in the transverse plane, about the longitudinal axis.

*return toward the anatomical position

*turning the segment in the opposite direction or away from the midline

*occurs in the transverse plane, about the longitudinal axis.

turning the palms upward

*in supination position with arm, radius and ulna are parallel with each other

turning the palms downward

*arm in pronated position, the radius lies across and on top of the ulna.

*lifting the inner edge of the foot, big toe elevated.

*frontal plane

*subtalar joint

Lifting the outer edge of the foot, small toe elevated.

*frontal plane

*subtalar joint (ankle)

*pointing the toes downward from the ankle

*ankle joint or talocrural joint

*lifting the toes toward the shin from the ankle

*ankle joint/talocrural joint

*health - disease avoidance - moderate intensity 30 min each 5x/wk. I-moderate, T=30 min each ex walk 6-12 mi/wk

*fitness - 150 min/week moderate intensity activity or 75 min/wk of vigorous activity. 3-4 days/wk, I=vigorous/hard ex jog 10 mi./wk

*performance - 7days/week, hard intensity 2 hr/day ex run 100 mi/wk

moderate - 3-5.9 MET's and relative intensity of 40-59% VO2 max or 64-76% HRMax

Vigorous - 6 or more MET's and relative intensity of 60-84% VO2 Max or 77-93% HRmax

Health related benefits of physical activity...

*reduces risk of death from all causes by about 40%

*impact on

cardiorespiratory health

metabolic health

muskoskeletal health (bone density)

cancer

mental health

functional ability/fall prevention

*8-10 exercises for major muscle groups

*resistance to allow 8-12 reps - failure

*one set sufficient, more gained w/2-3 sets

*resistance training 2 or more non consecutive days/wk

*1 minute of vigorous intensity = 2 min moderate intensity

*alterable - hypertension, smoking, diet, alcohol, inactivity, blood lipid,type ii diabetes, certain medicines

*inalterable - gender, race, age & family history

*Cardiovascular disease (31%)

*Cancer (23.2%)

*Chronic lower respiratory diseases (5.3%)

*Accudents (5.1%)

*Alzheimers (3.1%)

*a disease characterized by a cecrease in the total amount of bone mineral in the body and in the strength of the remaining bone.

*approx 10 million Americans over age 50 have Osteoporosis.  Another 34 million have low bone density.

*defined as a bone mineral density (BMD) that is 2.5 standard deviations below the mean for young white women.

Risk factors for osteoporosis include:

*female

*older age

*estrogen deficiency

*caucasian or Asia race

*low weight of BMI

*diet low in calcium

*alcohol abuse

*inactivity

*muscle weakness

*family history

*smoking

*history of fracture

*primary means for prevention is maximizing bone accumulation during childhood and adolescence.

*exercise is essention in slowing age-related bone loss.

ACSM recommends the following to preserve bone health:

i Mode - weight bearing aerobic exercise, jumping activities, and resistance exercise

ii.Intensity -moderate to high loading forces

iii. Frequency - weight bearing endurance exercise 3-4x/wk, resistance exercise 2-3x/wk

iv. Duration - 30-60 minutes combining weight-bearing and resistance exercise.

*includes 3 interrelated components:  energy availability, bone health & menstrual status.

*low energy availability is often associated with eating disorders or unhealthy eating patterns.

*Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are eating disorders frequently seen in the female athlete triad.

*improved cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness for boys and girls

*improved bone health

*improved cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers 

-insulin sensitivity (increased)

-HDL-C (increased)

-Type 2 diabetes (lower risk)

*favorable body composition

*children & adolescents should do 60 min. or more physical activity daily.

*aerobic - most of the 60 min. should be either moderate or vigorous aerobic actividy and should include vigorous intensity physical activiy at least 3 days/wk

-use a variety of continuos physical activities

-use appropriate progression when working with overweight children

*muscle strengthening - paort of the 60 minutes should include muscle-strengthening activity 3days/wk

-emphasize safety, proper form and muscular endurance

-less resistance, more repitition

*bone strengthening - 3 days/wk included w/60 min.

-best time to influence bone health is during puberty

-gains reported from jumping, weight-bearing activity, games & resistance exercise.

*Psychological assets - self-determined motivation, positive values toward physical activity, positive identity, positive affect, cognitive functioning, hope & optimism

*Social assets - support from adults & peers, social acceptance, friendships, leadership, teamwork, cooperation, respect, responsibility, courtesy, civic engagement, resistance to pressure to engage in risky behavior

*Aerobic Activity for health & cardio

-health benefits 150 min/week of moderate physical activity or 75 min/week vigorous aerobic activity or combination of both

-for more extensive health benefits - increase aerobic physical activity to 300 min/week or 150 min/week vigorous activity

-intensity - THR can be used to set exercise intensity - start with low end moderate 5-6 RPE and vigorous 7 or 8 RPE

-Duration - deconditioned divide sessions into 5-10 min segments done throughout day

-frequency - volume of activity should be spread over the course of the week

*muscular strength and endurance 

-begin w/minimal resistance for the 1st 8 weeks to allow for gradual adaptations

-perform 8 - 10 exercises using major muscle groups

-each set should be 8-12 reps elicit 5 or 6 RPE on 10 scale

-workout at lease 2x/week nonconsecutive days

*Flexibility

-involve all joints goal to maintain normal ROM

-movements as regular part of warm up and cool down

-stretch after workout preferred

-static stretches held for 15-60 seconds

-stretch at least 2days/wk

*accumulation of lipid deposits in the large and medium sized arteries

*eventually these deposits impede blood flow in the affected arteries, sometimes to the point of complete occlusion.

*blockages can cause reduced blood flo to the heart, myocardial infarction, stroke or claudication

*Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in the US.  CHD is a form of CVD

*hypertension (high blood pressure) greatly increases the risk of developing CVD.

*this is a disease that starts early in life and leads to blockages in the arteries of the heart, brain and peripheral muscles.

*refers to metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia (elevated plasma glucose)

*Type 1

-results from lack of insulin

-often appears early in life closely linked to genetic vs lifestyle

-requires insulin injections

*Type 2

-insulin resistance

-develops over time - lifestyle, most common form

-risk factors, older age, family history, excess weight & inactivity

*airflow into and out of the lungs is impeded

-includes chronic bronchitis, emphysema, & bronchial asthma

-chronic bronchitis & emphysema are not reversible, however asthma & exercise induced asthma may be reversible

-cigarette smoking is the most common cause of emphysema & chronic bronchitis

-cystic fibrosis another form of COPD is a fatal disease resulting in genetic defect

*restricted lung disease - the expansion of the lungs is reduced because of conditions involving the chest cavity or lung tissue.

-there are numerous causes, but all characterized by the reduced capacity to expand the lungs

-smaller lung volumes are typical

ssesses an individual's readiness to act on a new healthier behavior, and provides strategies, or processes of change to guide the individual through the stages of change to Action and Maintenance.

The Transtheoretical Model is also known by the abbreviation "TTM"^[1] and by the term "stages of change."^[2][3] A popular book, Changing for Good,^[4] and articles in the news media^{[5][6][7][8][9]}have discussed the model. It is "arguably the dominant model of health behaviour change, having received unprecedented research attention, yet it has simultaneously attracted criticism."^[10]

i-Precontemplation - not seriously thinking about change.  strategy involves discussing information and providing education about benefits of activity.

ii-Comtemplation - seriously thinking about change w/i next 6 months.  strategy involves helping them prepare to take action.  Provide information on how to start an exercise program.

iii-Preparation - transitional stage.  intends to take action within a month.  strategy involves helping the individual set up a personalized exercise program.

iv - Action - 6 month following the overt modification of an unhealthy behavior.  strategies involve helping individual make exercise a habit.  At high risk of relapse here.

v - maintenance - Successfully adhered for 6 months.  strategies involve evaluation of goals, and updates of program & exercise prescription.

Enhancing adherence

1 - assessment, reassessment periodically

2.  self monitoring - individual records information about their behavior and thoughts, feelings, situations- identify motivators and barriers

3.  Goal setting

4.  Reinforcement - social and self are crucial.  rewards are important

5.  Behavioral contracts - written, signed, public agreements

6.  Relapse prevention

identify strategies to deal with risk.  determine strategies to prevent relapse.

Injuries to bone

*can be simple (without external exposure) or compound (with external exposure

*control bleeding - elevate, control swelling with pressure & ice, spling above and below joint.

Protect

Rest

Ice

Compression

Elevation

1. Duty -the plaintiff has to prove that the defendant owed a duty or standard of care to the plaintiff.

2.  Breach of Duty - the plaintiff has to prove that the defendant failed to carry out that duty

3.  Causation - the plaintiff has to show that the breach of duty was the cause of the harm

4.  Harm and Damages - the plaintiff has to prove they suffered harm resulting in damages (losses).

1.  be aware of laws and standards of practice expected and required.

2.  develop risk management strategies toreflect the laws and standards of practice

3.  implement the risk management plan

4.  evaluate the risk management plan

1.  Personnel - hire qualified, competent employees.  purchase proper liability.  have procedures in place.

2.  Pre-activity screening - HSQ, qualifies professionals interpret date, develop procedures for medical clearance.

3.  Fitness testing & prescription - scopt of practice guidelines for fitness testing, scope of practice guidelines for nutrition advice, medical liaison resources for people with medical conditions

4.  Instruction & supervision - orientation, staff supervisuion, job performance appraisals

5.  equipment & facility - conduct regular inspections, post signage

6.  emergency action plan

American Disabilities Act (ADA) - prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities - reasonable accomodation must be provided

OSHA's Blood borne Pathogens Standard - applies to employers whose employees could come in contact with blood or infectious materials

HIPPA Privacy Rule & Final Non-Discrimination Rule - ensures that an individual's health and fitness data be kept confidential.

3 types of muscle fiber

*Type IIx - fast twitch/glycolytic - Anaerobic - glycolysis, heavier weight, lower rep, sprint.  capacity to product great force/fatigue quickly  Produce ATP by breakdown of PC and glycolysis.  13% are type IIx

*Type I - slow oxidative - endurance - 15+ reps. contract slowly, product low force.  Produce ATP aerobically in the mitochondria.  have large numbers of mitochondria.  have many capillaries to supply oxygen.  average male & female have 52% of this type

Type IIa - fast oxidative - hybrid - both characteristics.fast contracting, product great force and resist fatigue.  harve large number of mitochondria & capillaries.  33% are type IIa

*fast twitch cannot be converted to slow-twitch and vice-versa

*oxidative capacity of muscle fiber can be altered by endurance training

*type IIx can be converted to type IIa

*torque is an expression of rotational force

*when 2 forces produce rotation in opposite directions, one is the resistance force (R) and its force arm is called the resistance arm (RA).

*force generated by R x RA is call resistance torque (TR)

*limbs act as levers rotate around fulcra The point or support on which a lever pivots.)

*

*during exercise, the force arm is the distance from the axis point (joint axis of rotation) to the point of attachment of the muscle on the bone being moved.

*the resistance arm is the distance from the axis of rotation to the center of gravity of the moving limb.

*holding a dumbbell lengthens the resistance arm by moving the center of gravity further away from the fulcrum

*the longer the resistance arm, the more torque is needed to produce movement

*torque varies as a limb moves throught the joints range of motion due to change in the length of the force arm.

*rotational inertia or the resistance to change in the rotation of a body segment around a joint axis, depends on the mass of the segment and its distribution around the joint.  

*a body segment with heavier mass concentrated a further distance from the joint axis is harder to nmove.

Inertia can be manipulated by changing the joint angle (ex by flexing the knees during running, we move the mass close to the axis, decreasing inertia)

*angular momentum is the product of rotational inertia x angular velocity -- the faster a body segment moves, and the greater its rotational inertia, the greater its angular momentum.

*eccentric muscle action decelerates momentus.

*a greater mass moving at a faster speed requires more force to decelerate.

*occurs when a muscle shortens under tension.  

*this shortening pulls the points of attachment on each bone closer to each other, causing movement at the joint.

*ex elbow flexion

*occurs when a muscle generates tension that is not great enough to cause movement but instead slows the speed of movement in the opposite direction caused by another force.

*muscle exerts force, but it's length increases while it is under tension.

a muscle that is very effective in causing a certain joint movement is a prive mover or agonist.

A contracting muscle that is resisted or counteracted by another muscle, the antagonist.

during a concentric action, muscles that act opposite to the muscles causing the concentric action are antagonist.

They are mostly passive and lengthen as the agonists shorten.

Voluntary (skeletal) muscle

Involuntary (smooth) muscle

They contract when stimulated by motor neurons of the Central Nervous System or CNS (Martini & Nath, 2009). 

Reference:
Martini, F. & Nath, J. L. (2009). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.

Voluntary muscles are ones that you have the ability to consciously control: Arms, legs, mouth, head movement, etc. Most of the major muscle groups used or movement and communication are voluntary. 

Involuntary muscles would be things like your heart and the muscles around your intestines, which you generally cannot consciously control. 

The skeletal is called "voluntary" muscle because it is usually subject to conscious control.

They contract when stimulated by motor neurons of the Central Nervous System or CNS (Martini & Nath, 2009). 

Reference:
Martini, F. & Nath, J. L. (2009). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.

Voluntary muscles are ones that you have the ability to consciously control: Arms, legs, mouth, head movement, etc. Most of the major muscle groups used or movement and communication are voluntary. 

Involuntary muscles would be things like your heart and the muscles around your intestines, which you generally cannot consciously control. 

The skeletal is called "voluntary" muscle because it is usually subject to conscious control.

Involuntary Muscle

Smooth muscle is also sometimes known as Involuntary muscle due to our inability to control its movements, or Unstriated as it does not have the stripy appearance of Skeletal muscle. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs such as the Stomach, Oesophagus, Bronchi and in the walls of blood vessels. This muscle type is stimulated by involuntary neurogenic impulses and has slow, rhythmical contractions used in controlling internal organs, for example, moving food along the Oesophagus or contricting blood vessels during Vasoconstriction.

includes all of the muscles that cause the same movement at the same joint.  The group is named for the joint where the movement takes place and for the movement commonly caused by the concentric action of those muscles.

ex. elbow flexors are muscle group composed of the muscles responsible for flexion at the elbow joint when the muscles act concentrically.

for cells to use energy, they must break down the foodstuffs in a manner that conservices most of the energy contained in the bonds of the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.  In addition, the final product of the breakdown must be a molecule the cell can use -- ATP.  

Cells use ATP as the primary energy source for biological work -- whether it is electrical, mechanical or chemical.

In ATP 3 phosphates are linked by high-energy bonds.  When a bond between the phosphates is broken, energy is released and may be used by the cell.  At this point ATP has been reduced to a lower energy state becoming adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi)

another high-energy phosphate molecule stores in the muscle, is the most important immediate source of energy.  PC can donate it's phosphate molecule (and the energy therin) to ADP in order to make ATP allowing the muscle to continue producing force.  

PC store in muscle lasts only 3-5 seconds when the muscle is working maximally.  

Process does not require oxygen (anaerobic energy)

As the muscle's store of PC decreases, the muscle fibers break down glucose (a simple sugar) to produce ATP at a high rate.  The glucose is obtained from blood or the muscle's glycogen store.  The multienzyme pathway for glucose metabolism is called glycolysis.

Anaerobic - does not require oxygen.

In glycolysis, glucose is broken down into two moleculs of pyruvic acid.  Glycolysis can only continue for a limited time.  When glycolysis operates at a high speec -- pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid and accumulates in the muscle and blood.

Maximal work lasting about 2 minutes.

training in a hot and humid environment for as few as 7 - 12 days results in specific adaptations that improve heat tolerance and as a result, lower the trained person's body temperature during submaximal exercise.  Adaptation that improve heat tolerance include:

*increase in plasma volume

*earlier onset of sweating

*higher sweat rate

*reduced salt loss through sweat

*reduced blood flow to the skin

One of 4 processes in which the body loses heat.

heat is transferred from the surface of one object to the surface of another, with no physical contact between the objects.

Heat loss depends on the temperature gradient, that is, the temperature difference between the surfaces of the objects.

When person is seated in a comfortable environment -- about 60% of body heat is lost through radiation to cooler objects.

One of the 4 processes in which a body loses heat.

the transfer of heat from one object to another by direct contact, and like radiation, it depends on a temperature gradient.  Ex a person sitting on a cold, marble bench loses body heat by conduction.

One of 4 processes in which a body loses heat.

a special case of conduction in which heat is transferred to air (or water) molecules, which become lighter and rise away from the body to be replaced by cold air (or water). Ex a fan stimulates heat loss by placing more cold air molecules into contact with the skin.

4th heat-loss mechanism is the evaporation of sweat.

Sweating is the process of producing a watery solution over the surface of the body and evaporation is a process in which liquid water converts to a gas.  This conversion requires about 580 kcal of heat per liter of sweat evaporated.  At rest, approx 25% of heat loss is caused by evaporation -- but during exercise evaporation becomes the primary mechanism for heat loss.

Most common method of resitance training.

Weight does not change but muscle tension can vary significantly 

Muscle Groups at each joint

Hip Joint

Flexors - iliopsoas, pectineus, rectus femoris (sartorius, tensor fasciae latae, gracilis, adductor longus and brevis)

Extensors - gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus

Extensors - gleuteus maximus, biceps femoris, semitendinousus, semimembranosus

Abductors - gluteus medius (tensor fasciae latae, iliopsoas, sartorius)

Internal rotators - gluteius maximus, the six deep external rotator muscles (iliopsoas, sartotorius)

Muscle groups at each joint

Spinal Column

*thoracic and lumbar areas

Flexors - rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique

Extensors - erector spinae group

Rotators - internal oblique, external oblique, erector spinae, rotatores, miltifidus

Lateral flexors - internal oblique, external oblique, quadratus, lumborum, miltifidus, rotatores (erector spinae group)

Muscle groups at each joint

Lumbosacral joint

Anterior pelvic tilters - iliopsoas (rectus femoris)

Posterior pelvic tilters - rectus abdominis, internal oblique (external obliue, gluteus maximus)

Muscle groups at each joint

wrist joint

Flexors - flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi radialis (flexor digitorum superficialis and prfundus)

Extensors - extensor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi radials longe and brevis (extensor diditorum)

Abductors (radial flexors) flexor carpi radialis, extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis (extensor pollicis)

Adductors (ulnar flexors) flexor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi ulnaris

Muscle groups at each joint

Radiolnar joint

Pronators - pronator quadratus, pronator teres, brachioradialis

Supinators - supinator, biceps brachi, brachioradialis

Muscle groups at each joint

Elbow Joint

Flexors - brachialis, biceps brachii, brachioradialis (pronator teres, flexor carpi ulnaris and radialis)

Extensors - triceps brachi (Anconeus, extensor carpi ulnaris and radialis)

Muscles groups at each joint

Shoulder girdle (scapulothoracic joint)

Protractors - serratus anterior, pectoralis minor

Retractors - middle fibers of trapezius, rhomboids (uppand and lower fibers of trapezius)

Upward rotators - upper and lower fibers of trapezius, serratus anterior

Downward rotators - rhomboids, pectoralis minor

Muscle groups at each joint

Shoulder joint (glenchumeral joint)

Elevators- levator scapulae, upper fibers of the trapezius rhomboids

Depressors - lower fibers of trapezius, pectoralis minor

Flexors - anterior deltoid, clavicular portion of pectoralis major (short head of biceps brachii)

Extensors - sternal portion of pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, teres major (posterior deltoid, long head of triceps brachii, infraspinatus/teres minor

Abductors - middle deltoid, supraspinatus (anterior deltoid long head of bicep brachii)

Adductors - latissimus dorsi, teres major, sternal portion of pectoralis major (short head of bideps brachii, long head of triceps brachii)

External rotators - infraspinatus,*teres minor*(posterior deltoid) 

Internal Rotators - pectoralis major, subscapularis (latissimus dorsi, teres major (anterior deltoid, supraspinatus*)

Horizontal adductors - both portions of pectoralis major, anterior deltoid

Horizontal abductors - latissimus dorsi, teres major, infraspinatus, teres minor, posterior deltoid.

common mechanical errors in locomotion include running with stiff legs, swinging the arms across the trunk, lifting too high off the ground and slapping the feet.

Most common mechanical errors in throwing and striking are insufficient trunk rotation and poor timing amount the trunk, hip and upper-limb movements.

Cycling - with toe clips - riders can use the hip flexors and angle dorsiflexors to help return the pedal to the up position.

Energy

Several kinds of energy exist in biological systems...

Electrical energy in nerves & muscles

Chemical energy in synthesis of molecules

Mechanical energy in the contraction of muscle

Thermal energy derived from all of the processes that helps maintain body temperature.

Radiant energy from the sun - suns energy is trapped within the chemical bonds of plant food molecules.

Long-term sources of energy involve the products of ATP from a variety of fuels -- require oxygem, aerobic energy.  Primary fuels include muscle glycogen, blood glucose, plasma free fatty acids, and intramuscular fats.  Protein very small -- focus on carbohydrate and fat.  Glucose is broken down into glycolysis and taken into the mitochondria and enters the Krebs cycle.  Fats are taken into the mitochondria where they are also broken down to acetyl CoA which again enters the Krebs cycle. - process is called oxidative phosphorylation.

ATP production via aerobicd mechanisms is slower -- may be 2-3 min before ATP needs of the cell are met.

Immediate sources of energy

1.  ATP stored in muscle meet energy demands for maximal effort for about 1 second.

2.  Phosphocreatine (PC) - also stored in muscle -- most important immediate source - lasts about 3-5 seconds when muscle working maximally.

Short Term

3.  muscle fibers break down glucose to produce ATP.  Glucose obtained from blood or muscles glycogen store.  Short term energy source primary for events involveing maximal work lasting about 2 minutes.

Tension generated by a muscle depends on more than fiber type.  

*when a single stimulus excites a muscle fiber, a single, low-tension twitch results (contraction followed by relaxation)

If frequency of stimmulation increases, muscle fibers can't relax between stimuli -- this process is summation.  

Further increase in frequency of stimulation results in contractions fusing togehter in smooth contraction called tetanus.

The order is from most to least oxidative, from the slowest to the fastest fiber (type I to type IIa to type IIx).

Chronic, light exercise (less than 40% VOx max) only recruits type I fibers

moderate to vigorous exercise requires type IIa fibers.

exercise beyond 70% VO2 max involves all fiber types.

Because vCO2 and vO2 are measured at the mouth rather than at the tissue - this ratio is called respirator exchange ratio.  

Ratio tells us what type of fuel is being used during exercise.

R=vCO2/vO2

Fuel utilized during exercise -- carbohydrate (muscle glycogen and blood glucose) and fat (adipose tissue and intramuscular fat)

When R-1 - 100% of energy is derived from carbohydrate - 0% from fat.

When 4=0.7 the reverse is true.

When R=0.85 approx 50% of energy comes from both.

As exercise intensity increases - R increases indicating carbs play a bigger role in generating ATP.

During prolonged moderately strenuous exercise, R decreases over time, indicating that fat is being used more than carbs.

When the uptake of oxygen levels off during submaximal work, the oxygen uptake value represents the steady-state oxygen requirement for the activity.  

At this point, the ATP need of the cell is being met by the aerobic production of ATP in the mitochondria of the muscle on a pay-as-you go basis.

When a person stops running, the ATP need of the muscles that were involved in the activity suddenly drops toward the resting value.  The oxygen uptake decreases quickly at first, then more gradually approaches the resting value.  This elevated oxygen uptake during recovery from exercise is EPOC.

Also called oxygen debt and oxygen repayment.

Some extra oxygen used to make ATP and bring PC store back to normal.

Cardiovascular - ECG, HR, BP

respiratory variables - pulmonary ventilation, respiratory frequency

Metabolic variables - oxygen uptake, blood lactic acid levels.