Term
| Blood (Definition & Function) |
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Definition
- A liquid connective tissue
- Consists of cells surrounded by a liquid extracellular matrix. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Fluid that bathes body cells and is constantly renewed by the blood |
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Term
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Definition
1. Transportation
2. Regulation
3. Protection |
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Term
| Functions of Blood: Transportation |
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Definition
- Transports oxygen from the lungs
- Transports nutrients from the gastrointestinal tract
- Transports the wastes to various organs |
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Term
| Functions of Blood: Regulation |
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Definition
- Regulates pH through use of buffers
- Body temperature
- Blood osmotic pressure |
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Term
| Functions of Blood: Protection |
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Definition
- Clots (become gel-like)
- WCB's protect against disease by carrying on phagocytosis. |
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Term
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Definition
1. Blood plasma
2. Formed elements |
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Term
| Components of Blood: Blood Plasma |
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Definition
- Straw-colored liquid
- 91.5% water
- 8.5% solutes (7% by weight) are proteins.
Responsible for colloid osmotic pressure. Major contributors to blood viscosity. Transport hormones (steroid), fatty acids, and calcium. Help regulate blood pH |
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Term
| Components of Blood Plasma: Plasma Protein |
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Definition
1. Albumins
2. Globulins
3. Fibrinogen |
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Term
| Plasma Proteins: Albumins |
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Definition
| Smallest and most numerous of proteins |
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Term
| Plasma Proteins: Globulins |
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Definition
- Large proteins (plasma cells produce immunoglobulins)
- Help attack viruses and bacteria. Alpha and beta globulins transport iron, lipids, and fat-soluble vitamins. |
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Term
| Plasma Proteins: Fibrinogen |
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Definition
- Large protein
- Essential role in blood clotting. |
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Term
| Components of Blood: Formed Elements |
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Definition
Three principal components:
1. Red blood cells (RBCs)
2. White blood cells (WBCs)
3. Platelets |
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Term
| Formed Elements: Hematocrit |
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Definition
| - The percentage of total blood volume occupied by RBCs ex. a hematocrit of 40 indicates that 40% of the volume of blood is composed of RBCs. |
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Term
| FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS: Hemopoiesis |
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Definition
- Negative feedback system
- Regulate the total number of RBCs and platelets in circulation
- Number of WBCs varies in response to invading pathogens and foreign antigens |
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Term
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Definition
| - A highly vascularized connective tissue located in the microscopic spaces between trabeculae of spongy bone tissue. |
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Term
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Definition
- About 0.05–0.1% of red bone marrow cells
- Derived from mesenchyme
- Capacity to develop into many different types of cells |
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Term
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Definition
- During hemopoiesis, some of the myeloid stem cells differentiate into progenitor cells
- No longer capable of reproducing themselves and are committed to giving rise to more specific elements of blood.
- Some progenitor cells are known as colony-forming units (CFUs). |
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Term
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Definition
- Next gen' of cells after progenitor cells
- Develop into the actual formed elements of blood ex) monoblasts develop into monocytes |
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Term
| Hemopoietic Growth Factors |
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Definition
Regulate the differentiation and proliferation of particular progenitor cells.
Consist of several hormones:
- Erythropoietin
- Thrombopoietin
- Cytokines (Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) and interleukins) |
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Term
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Definition
- Type of hemopoietic growth factors
- Increases the number of red blood cell precursors
- Produced primarily by cells in the kidneys that lie between the kidney tubules. |
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Term
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Definition
- A hormone produced by the liver
- Stimulates the formation of platelets (thrombocytes) from megakaryocytes.
- Act as local hormones
- Stimulate proliferation of progenitor cells in red bone marrow
- Regulate the activities of cells involved in nonspecific defenses (such as phagocytes) and immune responses (such as B cells and T cells). |
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Term
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Definition
- Small glycoproteins that are typically produced by cells such as;
- Red bone marrow cells
- Leukocytes
- Macrophages
- Fibroblasts
- Endothelial cells |
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Term
| Cytokines x2: Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) and Interleukins |
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Definition
| Two important families of cytokines that stimulate white blood cell formation |
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Term
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Definition
- Biconcave discs
- Plasma membrane is both strong and flexible, allows them to deform without rupturing as they squeeze through narrow capillaries
- RBCs lack a nucleus and other organelles and can neither reproduce nor carry on extensive metabolic activities
- The cytosol of RBCs contains hemoglobin molecules |
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Term
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Definition
Synthesized before loss of the nucleus during RBC production
Constitute about 33% of the cell’s weight.
Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules
Hemoglobin also transports about 23% of the total carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism. |
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Term
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Definition
- No nucleus, all their internal space is available for oxygen transport.
- Lack mitochondria and generate ATP anaerobically (do not use up any of the oxygen they transport)
- A biconcave disc has a much greater surface area for the diffusion of gas molecules into and out of the RBC |
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Term
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Definition
| Four polypeptide chains (two alpha and two beta chains) |
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Term
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Definition
- A ring-like nonprotein pigment bound to each of the four chains of globin
- At the center of each heme ring is an iron ion (Fe2+) that can combine reversibly with one oxygen molecule |
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Term
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Definition
Live only about 120 days because of the wear and tear
Removed from circulation and destroyed by fixed phagocytic macrophages in the spleen and liver
Breakdown products are recycled and used in numerous metabolic processes, including the formation of new red blood cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Macrophages in the spleen, liver, or red bone marrow phagocytize ruptured and worn-out red blood cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| The globin and heme portions of hemoglobin are split apart. |
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Term
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Definition
Globin is broken down into amino acids, which can be reused
to synthesize other proteins |
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Term
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Definition
- Iron is removed from the heme portion in the form of Fe3+
- Associates with the plasma protein transferrin, a transporter for Fe3+ in the bloodstream |
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Term
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Definition
| - In muscle fibers, liver cells, and macrophages of the spleen and liver, Fe3+ detaches from transferrin and attaches to an iron-storage protein called ferritin. |
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Term
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Definition
| - On release from a storage site or absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, Fe3+ reattaches to transferrin. |
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Term
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Definition
- The Fe3+–transferrin complex is then carried to red bone marrow, where RBC precursor cells take it up through receptor-mediated endocytosis for use in hemoglobin synthesis.
- Iron is needed for the heme portion of the hemoglobin molecule, and amino acids are needed for the globin portion.
- Vitamin B12 is also needed for the synthesis of hemoglobin. |
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Term
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Definition
| Erythropoiesis in red bone marrow results in the production of red blood cells, which enter the circulation. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
- A cell near the end of the development sequence
- Ejects its nucleus and becomes reticulocyte
- Center of the cell to indent, producing the red blood cell’s distinctive biconcave shape.
- Retain some mitochondria, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum.
- Pass from red bone marrow into the bloodstream by squeezing between the endothelial cells of blood capillaries.
- Develop into mature red blood cells within 1 to 2 days after their release |
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Term
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Definition
| May occur if too little oxygen enters the blood (altitude, anemia etc.) |
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Term
| White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) |
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Definition
- Have nuclei
- Full complement of other organelles but they do not contain hemoglobin
- Classified as either granular or agranular |
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Term
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Definition
- Neutrophil
- Eosinophil
- Basophil |
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Term
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Definition
- Active in phagocytosis
- Ingest bacteria and dispose of dead matter
- Respond most quickly to tissue destruction by bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
| - Different chemicals released by microbes and inflamed tissues attract phagocytes (Neutrophils) |
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Term
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Definition
- Leave capillaries and enter tissue fluid.
- Release enzymes, such as histaminase, that combat the effects of histamine and other substances involved in inflammation during allergic reactions.
- Phagocytize antigen–antibody complexes and are effective against certain par- asitic worms.
- High eosinophil count often indicates an allergic condition or a parasitic infection. |
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Term
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Definition
- Leave capillaries at sites of inflammation
- Enter tissues, and release granules that contain heparin, histamine, and serotonin.
- Intensify the inflammatory reaction and are involved in hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions
- Similar in function to mast cells |
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Term
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Definition
- Lymphocyte
- Monocyte
- Macrophages x2
1. Fixed Macrophages
2. Wandering Macrophages |
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Term
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Definition
- Major soldiers in immune system battles
- Continually move among lymphoid tissues, lymph, and blood, spending only a few hours at a time in blood.
- Only a small proportion of the total lymphocytes are present in the blood at any given time
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Term
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Definition
- Blood is merely a conduit for monocytes, which migrate from the blood into the tissues
- Take longer to reach a site of infection than neutrophils, but they arrive in larger numbers and destroy more microbes.
- On their arrival, monocytes enlarge and differentiate into wandering macrophages, which clean up cellular debris and microbes by phagocytosis after an infection. |
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Term
Macrophages
1. Fixed Macrophages
2. Wandering Macrophages |
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Definition
- Once in the tissue, monocyts differenciate
- Active in phagocytosis
1. Reside in a particular tissue; examples are alveolar macrophages in the lungs or macrophages in the spleen
2. Roam the tissues and gather at sites of infection or inflammation. |
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Term
| Major Histocompatibility (MHC) Antigens |
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Definition
- Proteins in white blood cells protruding from plasma membrane into the extracellular fluid.
- “cell identity markers” |
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Term
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Definition
- Increase in WBC amount
- A normal, protective response to stresses such as invading microbes, strenuous exercise, anesthesia, and surgery. |
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Term
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Definition
- Abnormally low level of white blood cells
- Never beneficial
- May be caused by radiation, shock, and certain chemotherapeutic agents |
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Term
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Definition
- Process by which WBCs leave the bloodstream
- Roll along the endothelium, stick to it, and then squeeze between endothelial cell |
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Term
| Differential White Blood Cell Count |
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Definition
| - A count of each of the five types of white blood cells, to detect infection or inflammation, determine the effects of possible poisoning by chemicals or drugs, monitor blood disorders |
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Term
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Definition
- Hemopoietic stem cells also differentiate into cells that produce platelets.
- Form platelet plug in hemostasis; release chemicals that promote vascular spasm and blood clotting. |
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Term
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Definition
| Myeloid stem cells develop into megakaryocyte colony-forming cells that in turn develop into precursor cells called megakaryoblasts |
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Term
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Definition
- Precursor cells
- Transform into megakaryocytes
- Huge cells that splinter into 2000 to 3000 fragments. |
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Term
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Definition
- Fragment of megakaryoblasts enclosed by a piece of the plasma membrane
- Break off from the megakaryocytes in red bone marrow and then enter the blood circulation
- Granules contain chemicals that, once released, promote blood clotting
- Platelets help stop blood loss from damaged blood vessels by forming a platelet plug.
- Short life span, normally just 5 to 9 days.
- Aged and dead platelets are removed by fixed macrophages in the spleen and liver |
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Term
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Definition
- A sequence of responses that stops bleeding
(1) vascular spasm
(2) platelet plug formation, and
(3) blood clotting (coagulation).
- When successful, hemostasis prevents hemorrhage |
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Term
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Definition
- Reduces blood loss for several minutes to several hours, during which time the other hemostatic mechanisms go into operation.
- The spasm is probably caused by damage to the smooth muscle, by substances released from activated platelets, and by reflexes initiated by pain receptors. |
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Term
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Definition
Clotting factors:
- ADP, ATP, Ca2+, serotonin |
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Term
| Platelet Plug Formation (Step 1: Platelet Adhesion) |
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Definition
| Initially, platelets contact and stick to parts of a damaged blood vessel, such as collagen fibers of the connective tissue underlying the damaged endothelial cells. |
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Term
| Platelet Plug Formation (Step 2: Platelet Release Reaction) |
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Definition
- Due to adhesion, the platelets become activated, and their characteristics change dramatically.
- Extend many projections that enable them to contact and interact with one another, and they begin to liberate the contents of their vesicles (ADP etc.) |
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Term
| Platelet Plug Formation (Step 3: Platelet Aggregation) |
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Definition
- The release of ADP makes other platelets in the area sticky, and the stickiness of the newly recruited and activated platelets causes them to adhere to the originally activated platelets.
- This gathering of platelets is called platelet aggre- gation. Eventually, the accumulation and attachment of large numbers of platelets form a mass called a platelet plug. |
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Term
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Definition
- Normally, blood remains in its liquid form as long as it stays within its vessels.
- If drawn from the body, however, it thickens and forms a gel. Eventually, the gel separates from the liquid. |
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Term
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Definition
- Straw-colored liquid
- Blood plasma minus the clotting proteins |
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Term
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Definition
- The gel
- Consists of a network of insoluble protein fibers called fibrin in which the formed elements of blood are trapped |
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Term
| Clotting (coagulation) Factors. |
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Definition
| - These factors include calcium ions (Ca2+), several inactive enzymes that are synthesized by hepatocytes (liver cells) and released into the bloodstream, and various molecules associated with platelets or released by damaged tissues. |
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Term
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Definition
- Two pathways, called the extrinsic pathway and the intrinsic pathway, lead to the formation of prothrombinase.
- Once prothrombinase is formed, the steps involved in the next two stages of clotting are the same for both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways, and together these two stages are referred to as the common pathway |
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Term
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Definition
| Prothrombinase converts prothrombin (a plasma protein formed by the liver) into the enzyme thrombin |
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Term
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Definition
| Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen (another plasma protein formed by the liver) into insoluble fibrin. Fibrin forms the threads of the clot. |
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Term
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Definition
| Blood clotting has fewer steps than the intrinsic pathway and occurs rapidly—within a matter of seconds if trauma is severe. |
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Term
| Tissue Factor (TF) (Thromboplastin) |
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Definition
- Leaks into the blood from cells outside (extrinsic to) blood vessels and initiates the formation of prothrombinase
- TF is a complex mixture of lipoproteins and phospholipids released from the surfaces of damaged cells. |
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Term
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Definition
- Requires several minutes
- Activators are either in direct contact with blood or contained within (intrinsic to) the blood; outside tissue damage is not needed.
- If endothelial cells become roughened or damaged, blood can come in contact with collagen fibers in the connective tissue around the endothelium of the blood vessel |
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Term
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Definition
- In the second stage of blood clotting, prothrombinase and Ca2+ catalyze the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin. In the third stage, thrombin, in the pres- ence of Ca2+, converts fibrinogen, which is soluble, to loose fibrin threads, which are insoluble. Thrombin also activates factor XIII (fibrin stabilizing factor), which strengthens and stabilizes the fibrin threads into a sturdy clot. Plasma contains some factor XIII, which is also released by platelets trapped in the clot.
Thrombin has two positive feedback effects. In the first posi- tive feedback loop, which involves factor V, it accelerates the for- mation of prothrombinase. Prothrombinase in turn accelerates the production of more thrombin, and so on. In the second positive feedback loop, thrombin activates platelets, which reinforces their aggregation and the release of platelet phospholipids |
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Term
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Definition
| The consolidation or tightening of the fibrin clot. The fibrin threads attached to the damaged surfaces of the blood vessel gradually contract as platelets pull on them. As the clot retracts, it pulls the edges of the damaged vessel closer together, decreasing the risk of further damage. |
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Term
| Role of Vitamin K in Clotting |
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Definition
- Normal clotting depends on adequate levels of vitamin K in the body.
- Although vitamin K is not involved in actual clot formation it is required for the synthesis of four clotting factors. |
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Term
| Hemostatic Control Mechanisms (Fibrinolytic System) |
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Definition
| - Dissolves small, inappropriate clots; it also dissolves clots at a site of damage once the damage is repaired. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| An inactive plasma enzyme when a clot is formed |
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Term
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Definition
Both body tissues and blood contain substances that can activate plasminogen to plasmin or fibrinolysin, an active plasma enzyme.
Both body tissues and blood contain substances that can activate plasminogen to plasmin or fibrinolysin, an active plasma enzyme. |
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Term
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Definition
| Substances that delay, suppress, or prevent blood clotting |
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Term
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Definition
| Blocks the action of several factors |
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Term
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Definition
| An anticoagulant that is produced by mast cells and basophils, combines with antithrombin and increases its effective- ness in blocking thrombin. |
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Term
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Definition
- May be initiated by roughened endothelial surfaces of a blood vessel resulting from atherosclerosis, trauma, or infection.
- These conditions induce adhesion of platelets. |
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Term
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Definition
| Clotting in an unbroken blood ves- sel (usually a vein) |
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Term
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Definition
- The clot itself
- May dissolve spontaneously |
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Term
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Definition
- A blood clot, bubble of air, fat from broken bones, or a piece of debris transported by the bloodstream
- An embolus that breaks away from an arterial wall may lodge in a smaller-diameter artery downstream and block blood flow to a vital organ. |
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Term
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Definition
| When an embolus lodges in the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
- Composed of glycoproteins and glycolipids
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Term
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Definition
- Based on the presence or absence of various antigens
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Term
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Definition
- Based on two glycolipid antigens called A and B
- People whose RBCs display only antigen A have type A blood. Those who have only antigen B are type B. Individuals who have both A and B antigens are type AB; those who have neither antigen A nor B are type O. |
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Term
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Definition
- React with the A or B antigens if the two are mixed
- These are the anti-A antibody, which reacts with antigen A, and the anti-B antibody, which reacts with antigen B
-Have antibodies for any antigens that your RBCs lack |
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Term
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Definition
- Antibodies in the recipient’s plasma bind to the antigens on the donated RBCs
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Term
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Definition
- Happens after agglutination
- rupture of the RBCs and the release of hemoglobin into the blood plasma.
- The liberated hemoglobin may cause kidney damage by clogging the filtration membranes. |
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Term
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Definition
- Can receive blood from donors of all four blood types.
- They have no antibodies to attack antigens on donated RBCs. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Can donate blood to all four ABO blood types |
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Term
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Definition
- A condition in which the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood is reduced.
- All of the many types of anemia are characterized by reduced numbers of RBCs or a decreased amount of hemoglobin in the blood.
- The person feels fatigued and is intolerant of cold, both of which are related to lack of oxygen needed for ATP and heat production.
- Skin appears pale, due to the low content of red-colored hemoglobin circulating in skin blood vessels. |
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Term
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Definition
- Contain Hb-S, an abnormal kind of hemoglobin.
- When Hb-S gives up oxygen to the interstitial fluid, it forms long, stiff, rodlike structures that bend the erythrocyte into a sickle shape
- The sickled cells rupture easily.
- Even though erythropoiesis is stimulated by the loss of the cells, it cannot keep pace with hemolysis.
- Signs and symptoms of SCD are caused by the sickling of red blood cells.
- When red blood cells sickle, they break down prematurely (sickled cells die in about 10 to 20 days).
- This leads to anemia, which can cause shortness of breath, fatigue, paleness, and delayed growth and development in children.
- The rapid breakdown and loss of blood cells may also cause jaundice, yellowing of the eyes and skin. Sickled cells do not move easily through blood vessels and they tend to stick together and form clumps that cause blockages in blood vessels. This deprives body |
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Term
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Definition
| An inherited deficiency of clotting in which bleeding may occur spontaneously or after only minor trauma |
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Term
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Definition
- Refers to a group of red bone marrow cancers in which abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably.
- The accumulation of the cancerous white blood cells in red bone marrow interferes with the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
- The oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced, an individual is more susceptible to infection, and blood clotting is abnormal. |
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