• seminomadic pastoral people
• lived in steppes
• rode in two wheeled chariots

• land dried up
• human/animal population grew too big to feed
• tried to escape from invaders/outbreak

• group of Indo-europeans who occupied Anatolia.
• dominated southwest Asia for 450 yrs.
• occupied Babylon
• struggled for control of northern Syria with Egypt

• aka Asia Minor
• huge peninsula that juts out into Black and Mediterranean seas.
• high, rocky, rich in agriculture
• in modern day Turkey

• formed by seperate city-states
• Hattusas was capital

• adopted Akkadian for international use
• language of Babylonians, which they conquered
• adopted because Baylonians were more advanced

• similar to Hammurabi's code, but more forgiving
• murderers were not sentenced to death, but could make up for it by giving victim's family a slave from his family

• excelled in technology of war
• chariot was light, easy to maneuver, two wheels, pulled by 2-4 horses
• 1500 Bc, first to smelt iron and harden it into weapons.
• iron was stronger then bronze, held sharper edge

• 1190 BC
• great wave of invasions, tribes attacked from north and burned capital city.

• group of indo-europeans who crossed over northwest mountain passes into Indus River Valley in India.
• left no archaeological record, except Vedas.

• sacred literature of Aryans
• four colllections of prayers, ritual instructions, and magical spells.
• most inportant is Rig VEda, entirely devoted to gods.

• called people in India dasas, dark skin
• first arrived in India, three social classes: Brahmins (priests), warriors, and peasants or traders.
• fourth group formed: non-Aryan laborers or craftsmen (shudras)
• varna (skin color)=distinguishing feature between classes
• 15th century: Portugese explorers called social classes castes.

• extended settlements along Ganges and Yamuna river valleys.
• first arrived in India, chiefs were elected, minor kings arose and struggled for land/power
• major kingdom emerged: Magadha

• collection of religious beliefs that developed slowly over long period of time
• cannot be traced back to one founder with single set of ideas

Hindu origin

• 750-550 BC, Hindu teachers tried to interpret meaning of Vedic hymns.
• comments were written down, known as Upanishads

• state of perfect understanding of all things
• person receives moksha when they understand relationship between atman (soul of living being) and Brahman (world soul)
• receives release from life in this world.

Brahman

• world soul
• had personalities of three gods: Brahma (creator), Vishnu ( protector), and Shiva ( destroyer)

• the protector
• took on many forms: Krishna (divine cowherder)
• Rama (perfect king)

• religion founded by Mahavira.
• believed that everything in world had a soul, should not be harmed.
• Followers work jobs that are harmless to all creatures

• founder of Buddhism.
• born into noble family, exhibited marks of great man from birth.
• told by prophecy that if he stayed at home he would become universal spiritual leader, but if he left home he would become world ruler.

• 29 yrs old: ventured outside four times: saw an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and then a peaceful holy man.
• wandered through forest for six years, seeking enlightenment (wisdom).
• tried many ways of reaching enlightenment, finally meditated for 49 days under fir tree.

• preached to five companions who accompanied him on his wanderings.
• laid out four main ideas that he understood in his enlightenment, called Four Noble Truths.

1.  Everything in life is suffering and sorrow

2.  The cause of all suffering is people's selfish desire for the temporary pleasures of the world.

3.  The way to end all suffering is to end all desires.

4.  The way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold Path.

• Middle Way between desires and self-denial
• like a staircase, those who were seeking enlightenment had to master one step at a time.
• By following Eightfold Path, anyone could reach nirvana, release from selfishness and pain

• the religious community (sangha)
• Buddha
• dharma (Buddhist doctrine or law)

Traders and Buddhism

• carried Buddhism beyond India to Sri Lanka
• Buddhism followed Central Asian trade Routes, called Silk Road, all the way to China

• powerful seafarers who dominated trade in the eastern Mediterranean from 2000-1400 BC
• lived in Crete, large island on southern edge of Aegean Sea
• produced some of finest pottery, swords, and vessels of precious metals

• Minoan capital city
• excavated by archaeologists in 19th century
• found that they were peaceful city, did not need fortifications
• artworked showed that they enjoyed vigourous sports
• also showed women were higher than men

• king of which Minoa was named
• kept half-human half-bull monster locked in labyrinth

• 1200 BC
• reasons unknown, natural distaster?
• 1700BC, earthquake destroyed Minoan cities, rebuilt
• 1470BC, series of earthquakes followed by volcanic eruption destroyed cities, did not survive

• most powerful traders along the Mediterranean
• never united into a country
• founded wealthy city-states that competed with each other
• remarkable shipbuilders and seafarers
• first people to venture beyond Strait of Gibraltar

• most important Phoenician city states
• famous for purple dye, Berytus, produced by Murex, and Byblos, trading center for papyrus

• built along coasts of Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and Spain
• strung out like beads
• greatest colony-Carthage, in North Africa

• merchants needed way of recording transactions
• system was phonetic
• Phoenicians introduced system to trading partners

• eastern cities were captured by Assyrians in 842BC
• Phoenician homeland came under control of Babylonians
• then Persian empire of King Cyrus

• region at eastern edge of Mediterranean Sea, inhabited by Phoenicians
• Canaan, area of Palestine, home of Hebrews
• connected Africa to Asia
• seaports opened onto Mediterranean and Red Sea

• first five books of Hebrew bible
• considered most sacred writings in Hebrew tradition.
• In Torah, God chose Abraham to be father (first) of HEbrew people.
• says Abraham was shepherd who lived in Ur
• God commanded him to move his people and his flocks to Canaan

• named Yahweh
• went with Abraham

• belief in a single God.
• Hebrews were monotheists

• mutual promise between God and Abraham.
• first of series of covenants made by Yahweh and his people

Exodus

• event in which Hebrews fled Egypt.
• Moses- man who led Hebrews out of slavery
• When Moses was born, Egyptian Pharaoh felt threatened by number of hebrews in Egypt, ordered all male Hebrew babies to be killed.  Moses's mother sent him down Nile river, found by Egyptian princess,adopted.  considered greatest figure in Hebrew history because he obeyed God when he commanded him to lead Jews out of Egypt.

• Hebrews were traveling across Sinai Peninsula, Moses climbed Mount Sinai to pray
• came back with two stone tablets, 10 Commandments
• Hebrews believed that these laws created a new covenant between God and people.

• when they arrived in Canaan, were loosely organized into twelve tribes
• tribes lived in seperate territories and were self-governing
• in emergencies, God would raise up judges.  they would unite the tribes and provide judicial and military leadership.
• one of most prominent judges- Deborah

• hebrews united under three kings: Saul, David and Solomon
• new kingdom was called Israel
• Saul was chosen because of his success in driving out Philistines from hills of Palestine
• After death, succeeded by son-in-law, David.  extremely popular leader, established Jerusalem as the capital, and founded a dynasty.

• David was succeeded by his son Solomon
• most powerful of Hebrew kings
• built trading empire with his friend Hiram
• beautified Jerusalem
• built great temple in Jerusalem.
• temple was to be permanent home for the Ark of the Covenant, which contained tablets of Moses' law

• Solomon's projects required high taxes, strained kingdom's finances
• men were forced to spend one out of every three months working on the temple
• after solomon's death, Jews of northern part of kingdom revolted
• kingdom divided into two
• Israel in North, Judah in South

• Israel and Judah began paying tribute (peace money paid by weak to strong) to Assyria
• Assyrians began siege of capital city of Israel, Samaria
• whole northern kingdom fell to Assyrians
• southern kingdom (Judah) resisted for another 150 yrs.
• Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar conquered south