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| not holy, Roman, or an empire; began with the crowning of Otto I by Pope John XII; relations between the popes and emperors were usually tense; |
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| Tensions between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire |
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| the emperors sought to influence the selection of church officials; neither the popes nor the emperors were strong enough to dominate each other; the popes prevented the emperors from building a powerful imperial state; |
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| Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085 C.E.) ordered an end to lay investiture; Gregory released Emperor Henry IV's (1056-1106 C.E.) subjects from their duty to serve him when he objected to the end of investiture; German princes then won concessions that enhanced their independence and diminished the emperor's authority; |
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Frederick I Barbarossa
"the red beard" |
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| reigned from 1152 to 1190 C.E.; the papacy did not want Barbarossa to build a powerful state; Frederick was forced to relinquish his rights in Lombardy |
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| Hugh Capet was elected to serve as king when the last of the Carolingians died; by the early 14th century the Capetian kings had gradually centralized power and authority in France; |
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| founders of the English monarchy; descendants of Vikings; the dukes of Normandy built a tightly centralized state in which all authority stemmed from themselves; retained title to all land in Normandy; built disciplined armies and emerged as prominent political and military leaders; in 1066 Duke William of Normandy invaded England; |
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| a series of ecclesiastical states, city-states, and principalities competed for power and position in Italy; |
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Iberia
(Iberian Peninsula) |
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Definition
| Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula; small Christian states survived in northern Spain; Christian adventurers began to attack Muslim territories and enlarge their own domains; |
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| population pressure; serfs cleared forests and drained swamps to increase the amount of land devoted to agriculture; experimented with new crops and different cycles of crop rotation; increased cultivation of beans; kept more domestic animals; dug ponds in which they raised fish; expanded use of water mills and heavy plows; horseshoe and horse collar; |
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Term
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Definition
| abundant supplies of food could support large numbers of urban residents; artisans, crafts workers, merchants, and professionals; thriving centers of government and business; increased specialization of labor; manufacturing concentrated on the production of wool textiles; lively centers for the spinning, weaving, and dyeing of wool; Italy was well situated to particpate in the trade networks of the Mediterranean basin; Italian merchants established colonies; |
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Definition
| well-developed trade network in the Baltic and North sea; dominated trade in grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch; |
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| Improved Business Techniques |
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Definition
| rapidly increasing volume of trade; development of credit, banking, and new forms of business organization; bankers issued letters of credit to merchants traveling to distant lands; merchants exchanged their letters of credit for merchandise or cash; entered into partnerships; |
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Term
"The Three Estates"
(those who pray, those who fight, and those who work) |
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Definition
| parish priests, bishops, cardinals, and popes; fighters came from the ranks of nobles; the vast majority of the population worked; society marked by political, social, and economic inequality; those who prayed or fought enjoyed rights and honors denied to those who worked; |
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Definition
| an emphasis on chivalry and courtly behavior was gradually introduced within the ranks of the nobles; expectations of high ethical standards and refined manners; chivalry was an informal but widely recognized code of ethics and behavior considered appropriate for nobles; the noble who observed the chivalric code would devote himself to the causes of order, piety, and the Christian faith instead of seeking wealth and power; |
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Definition
| a class of traveling poets, minstrels, and entertainers; aristocratic women enthusiastically patronized; most active in southern France and northern Italy; Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204) liberally supported romantic poets and entertainers; |
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Term
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Definition
| merchants and workers in all the arts, crafts, and trades organized guilds that regulated the production and sale of goods within their jurisdictions; the guilds had come to control much of the urban economy of medieval Europe; regulated the entry of new workers into their groups; provided a focus for friendship and mutual support; |
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Definition
| women worked as butchers, brewers, bakers, candle makers, fishmongers, shoemakers, gemsmiths, innkeepers, lauderers, monkey changers, merchants; occasionally as physicians and pharmacists; women dominated occuations involving textiles and decorative arts, such as sewing, spinning, weaving, and the making of hats, wigs, and fur garments; most guilds admitted women; some guilds were exclusively female; |
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Term
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Definition
| beginning in the early 11th century, bishops and archbishops organized schools in their cathedrals; invited well-known scholars to serve as master teachers; attracted students from all parts of Europe; students and teachers organized academic guilds; the first universities were noted for instruction in law, theology, and medicine; Aristotle; St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was the most famous of the scholastic theologians; |
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Term
| Sacraments and the Devotion to Saints |
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Definition
| the church recognized seven sacraments; baptism, matrimony, penance, and the Eucharist; saints were human beings who had led such exemplary lives that God held them in special esteem; the most popular saint was the Virgin Mary, mother of Jesus; personified the Christian ideal of womanhood, love, and sympathy; veneration of their relics and physical remains; the making of pilgrimages became so common that a travel industry emerged; |
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Term
| Dominicans and Franciscans |
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Definition
| St. Dominic (1170-1221) and St. Francis (1182-1226); founded orders of mendicants or beggars; friars who would have no personal possessions and would have to beg for their food and other needs; preached to audiences; especially active in towns and cities; worked within the church; |
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The Cathars
(Albigensians) |
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Definition
| most active in southern France and northern Italy; adopted the teachings of heretical groups in eastern Europe; considered the material world evil; advocated an ascetic, pure, spiritual existence; posed a direct challenge to the Roman Catholic church; Pope Innocent III called for a military campaign to destroy the Cathars |
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Term
| Atlantic and Baltic Colonization |
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Definition
| Scandinavian seafarers colonized the islands of the North Atlantic Ocean; Eric the Red discovered Greenland and established a small colony; Lief Ericsson arriving at Newfoundland in Canada; Lief called it Vinland; the kings of Denmark and Norway converted to Christianity in the 10th century; the Norwegian colony in Iceland also adopted Christianity in 999 or 1000; |
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| conquered by the Muslims in the 9th century; Norman warriors returned Sicily to Christian hands in the 11th century; Islam did not disappear completely; |
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| took longer than the reconquest of Sicily; only the kingdom of Granada in the far south remained Muslim; |
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Definition
| Pope Urban II launched the crusades in 1095; the response to Urban's appeal was immediate and enthusiastic; five major crusades; the first crusade captured Jerusalem; could not reestablish control over Palestine; exchanged ideas during the crusades |
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