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Succeeded to the throne after his father’s death in 1855.
Devoted to the prosecution of the Crimean War and negotiations for peace.
Began period of radical reforms as a result of theft and corruption
attempt to not depend on landed aristocracy controlling the poor—poor was emancipated (could own property, marry as they chose, bring suits on law courts, but weren’t completely free)
reform all branches of administration—system of zemstvos (local assemblies), that provided moderate degree of self-government
killed with a bomb in 1881 by members of People’s Will |
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During Alexander II’s reign
Russian intellectuals who followed Herzen’s ideas formed the movement
Aim was to create a new society through revolutionary acts of the peasants to overthrow tsarist autocracy.
Due to peasant’s lack of interest in the movement, they ended up using violence, ultimately leading up to the assassination of Alexander II. |
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Late 19th century
A centralized organization of radicals against the tsarist regime
Assassinated Alexander II in 1881. |
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mid to late 19th century
First liberal administration from 1868 to 1874
Responsible for series of impressive (usually liberal) reforms
Legislation and government orders opened civil service positions to competitive exams rather than patronage
Introduced secret ballot for voting
Abolished practice of purchasing military commissions
Education Act of 1870 attempted to make elementary schools available for all children
**ultimately sought to strengthen nation and its institutions |
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Tory leader in Parliament
Motivated by desire to win over newly enfranchised groups to conservative party.
Reform Act of 1867: step toward democratization of Britain
Lowered monetary requirement for voting, enfranchising many male urban workers
These workers ended up producing liberal victory in 1868, opposite of what Disraeli expected
Rivalry between conservative and liberal parties intensified
Disraeli (Conservative) vs. Gladstone (liberal) |
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In hands of Mazzini, Italian nationalist
Goal: to create united Italian republic
Popular movement for both liberal and conservative parties
Still no results by 1860, although making progress
Began acquiring more and more land over the next decade |
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1807—1882
New leader of Italian unification
Favored democratic republicanism
In 1860, landed in Sicily where a revolt broke out
most of Sicily had been pacified under his control
jumpstarted victorious march up Italian peninsula
planned to march on Rome, but chose not to in order to avoid war and retired his farm
on March 17, 1861, new kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under a centralized gov’t subordinated to control of Piedmont and King Victor Emanuel II of the house of Savoy (unification still not complete) |
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mid to late 19th century
Liberal minded nobleman who made fortune in agriculture, banking, railroads, and shipping
A moderate who favored constitutional government.
Consummate politician with ability to persuade others of the rightness of his own convictions
Became prime minister in 1852
pursued policy of economic expansion, encouraging building roads, canals, railroads and fostering business enterprise by expanding credit and stimulating investment in new industries
this increase in gov’t revenue allowed him to pour money into equipping a large army
knew he needed French to take on Austria in war
agreement with Napoleon—ally with Piedmont in driving Austrians out of Italy so that Italy could be reorganized
France soon dropped out of war, but received Lombardy land
Soon after war started, some northern Italian states had been taken over by nationalists—states agreed to join Piedmont.
Napoleon agreed to annexations in return for land of Nice and Savoy |
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King William I believed the army was in need of change if Prussia was t remain a great power.
King drastically increases its size
Reformers began modernizing army after their defeat in the War of Fourth Coalition, contributing to defeat of Napoleon in War of Sixth Coalition.
Prussian Army was eventually successful in 19th century in wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, allowing Prussia to unify Germany and create German Empire in 1871. |
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mid 19th century
The “Crazy Junker”
Succeeded in guiding Prussia’s unification of Germany
Consummate politician and opportunist
Only waged war when all other alternatives were exhausted and when he was sure military and diplomatic advantages were on his side
Tried to resubmit army appropriations bill to parliament but was rejected
Reorganized army anyway, ignoring Parliament—they did nothing
Eventually led to Danish War because he was considered “on an active foreign policy” in 1864 |
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| 1864-1871 Danish War, Austro Prussian War, Franco -Prussian War |
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1864
Arose over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein
Danish gov’t moved to incorporate both into Denmark
Bismarck persuaded Austrians to join Prussia in declaring war on Denmark
Danes were defeated and surrendered both duchies
Prussia took Schleswig and Austria took Holstein
Bismarck pursued negotiations with Austria while laying the foundation for the isolation of Austria (willing to go to war to expand Prussian power) |
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(1866)
Bismarck used joint occupation of Schleswig-Holstein to goad Austrians into war.
Austrian army defeated less than one month later
Austria lost no territory except Venetia to Italy, but was excluded from German affairs.
Prussia dominated all of northern Germany
Bismarch asked Prussian parliament to pass bill legalizing the taxes he had collected since 1862 to reorganize the army. Many in favor of bill with Bismarck’s successful use of military power.
Both army and foreign policy remained in hands of king and chancellor (Bismarck). Parliament included delegates nominated by state and a lower house elected by universal male suffrage. |
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(1870-1871)
Southern Germany and Prussia went to war against France.—second French empire collapsed
Peace treaty was signed in May
German unity was achieved by Prussian monarchy and Prussian army
Triumph of authoritarian, militaristic values over liberal, constitutional sentiments in development of new German state=strongest power on continent. |
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late 19th century
France’ strong anti-German sentiment
Political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial losses incurred by a country following a war or social movement |
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late 19th century
Alfred Dreyfus: a Jew and captain in French general staff accused of giving military secrets to Germans
Found guilty by military court and condemned to life imprisonment but evidence emerged of his innocence.
A Catholic officer was more the culprit but Catholics refused trial—Republic leaders eventually insisted on new trial
Gov’t pardoned Dreyfus in 1899 and seven years later, was fully exonerated
Affair led to change in gov’t in France
Moderate republicans lost control to radical republicans (determined to make progress toward more democratic society)
Church and state eventually separated
Changes ended political threat from right to Third Republic (which commanded loyalty of most French people)
*further concerns: race concerns, especially against Jews |
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1840—1902
He wrote novels
Writing provided good examples of naturalism
Showed how alcoholism and different environments affected people’s lives
Rougon-Macquart—series of novels on natural and social history of a family.
Wrote “I Accuse” in 1898
Split France
Dreyfussards defended liberal nationalism
Anti-dreyfessards spoke of nationalism of blood |
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Key result of the Dreyfus Affair
Established state secularism in France (enacted during Third Republic)
Three principles:
Neutrality of the state
Freedom of religious exercise
Public powers related to church
France was governed by Left Coalition led by Emile Combes |
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1856—1939
Psychoanalysis and role of unconscious
Human behavior strongly determined by unconscious, earlier experiences and inner forces or which people of largely unaware
Used hypnosis and dream analysis
Id, ego, superego: human mind was battleground among these three
By making conscious mind aware of unconscious and its repressed contents, the patient’s psychic conflict was resolved |
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1849—1915
Minister for finance from 1892 to 1903
Saw industrial growth as crucial to Russia’s national strength
Pushed gov’t toward development of massive railroad construction
Encouraged system of protective tariffs to help Russian industry and persuaded Tsar Nicholas II that foreign capital was essential for rapid industrial development
Made possible rapid growth of modern steel and coal industry in Ukraine |
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| Russian Revolution of 1905: |
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Japan led surprise attack on Russian eastern fleet at Port Arthur in 1904
Russia sent its Baltic fleet halfway around the world to the East, but were defeated by new Japanese army at the coast
Russia sued for peace in 1905
In January of 1905, massive procession of workers went to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present petition of grievances to tsar. Troops opened fire on the demonstration which started a revolution (strikes and unions formed)
Nicholas II issued October Manifesto, in which he granted civil liberties and agreed to create a legislative assembly known as the Duma; this satisfied middle class moderates who came to support government’s repression of workers’ uprising in Moscow at end of 1905.
Revolution was not ultimately successful—reforms dissolved village ownership by enterprising peasants |
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early 20th century
Founded Women’s Social and Political Union in 1903
Enrolled mostly middle- and upper-class women
Realized value of media and used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands
Group of suffragists with the aim to gain the right of women to full citizenship in the nation-state |
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| Women’s Social and Political Union: |
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1903
Founded by Pankhurst family
Originally nonviolent and non-confrontational, the union began to use confrontational methods to get their point across about women’s suffrage |
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1850—1932
Evolutionary socialist
Member of German Social Democratic Party
Spent years of exile in Britain where he was influenced by English socialism and British parliamentary system
Challenged Marxist orthodoxy with his book Evolutionary Socialism
Thought middle class was actually expanding, not declining
Proletariat’s position was improving as workers experienced a higher standard for living
Discarded Marx’s emphasis on class struggle and revolution
He thought that evolution by democratic means, not revolution, would achieve socialism |
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established in 1893
Marxist socialist political party in Britain
Affiliated to Labour Party from 1906 to 1932 when it voted to leave
3 parliamentary representatives defected to the Labour Party in 1947 and it was dissolved in 1975 |
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1899-1900
Boxers
Secret religious society in China that led to the Boxer Rebellion
Were told not to disobey, violate laws, but were to destroy foreigners and kill corrupt officials
Drew its chief support from peasants, who naively believed that if they trained their bodies and learned certain magical incantations they would achieve immortality in fighting the enemy.
Anti-imperialist |
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second half of 19th century
On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
Puts forth idea that within species and between species there was a struggle for survival and that variations among members of a species made them better fitted to survive
The Descent of Man: applied these ideas to human development |
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second half of 19th century
Most popular exponent of social Darwinism—applying Darwinian ideas to societies
British philosopher
Argued that societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment—struggle for survival
Social Darwinism—“survival of the fittest”
Wrote Social Statics |
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1865—1936
Wrote “The White Man’s Burden”
Notion that superior white peoples had a moral obligation to raise ignorant native peoples to higher level of civilization
Through science, race becomes a natural category to differentiate types and ranks as evidenced by Kipling’s work |
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1853—1902
Founded both diamond and gold companies that monopolized production of these commodities and enabled him to gain control of a territory north of Transvaal that he named Rhodesia
Wanted to create a series of British colonies all linked by railroad
British government forced him to resign in 1896 as prime minister of Cape Colony after he conspired to overthrow the Boer government of the South African Republic without British approval |
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| Leader of the Congress of Vienna. Austrain foreign minister. The Quadruple alliance restored the Bourbon monarch to france in the person of Louis XVIII and agreed to meet at a congress in Vienna. Metternich lead this conference. |
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| Ruled Russia during the period of the Napoleonic Wars. 1801-1825. raised in the ideas of the Enlightenment he relaxed censorship, freed political prisons and reformed the educational system. He did not grant a constitution or free the serfs. After the defeat of Napoleon he reverted to strict and arbitrary censorship. |
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| Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. united to defeat France and ensure peace after the war. |
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| all people should be as free from restraint as possible. Both in economic and political. Economically state should not interfere in the free play of economic forces especially supply and demand but shold only defense the country police protection of individuals and maintenance of of public works too expensive for individuals to undertake. Politically equality before the law, freedom of assembly and speech and press and freedom from arbitrary arrest. |
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| he awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs. Divided people such as the germans wanted national unity. This community constitutes a nation and it rather than a dynasty city-state or other political unit becomes the focus of the individuals primary political loyalty. |
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| 1805-1872. a dedicated Italian nationalist who founded an organization known as Young Italy in 1831. It’s goal was the creation of a united Italian republic. They asked that you dedicated their lives to the Italian Nation. |
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| 1762-1814 a philosopher was a proponent of German nationalism. philosophical voices like his did awaken a dream of German nationalism that would bear fruit in the nineteenth century. |
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| attempts of british workers to improve their condition. The first important political movement of working men organized during the 19th century. It’s aim was to achieve political democracy. The charter demanded universal male suffrage, payment for members of parliament, elimination of property qualifications of members of parliament and annual sessions of parliament. |
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| Alexander I brother Constantine was the legal heir to the throne however he renounst it to his brother Nicholas I. During this confusion Military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against the accession of Nicholas - this called the Decembrist Revolt. This was quickly crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas. |
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| Took over after Alexander as ruler of Russia instead of Constantine. He ruled from 1825-1855 and was a reactionary ruler. After the rebellion of the Decembrist Revolt, he feared another revolt and was an advocate of increasing censorship, suppressing individual freedom by the use of political police and strengthened government bureaucracy. |
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| Student societies dedicated to fostering the goal of a free united Germany. Ideas and motto were Honor, Liberty, Fatherland. Active from 1817-1819 when they were shut down by Metternich. |
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| The Bourbon Monarchy was restored to France in the person of Louis XVIII. He ruled from 1814-1824. He accepted Napoleons Civil Code and preserved confiscated lands during the revolution. Louis’s Grudging moderation, however , was opposed by liberals eager to extend the revolutionary reforms. |
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| Succeeded Louis XVIII Charles ruled from 1824-1830. Charles granted indemnity to aristocrats whose lands where confiscated during the revolution. He pursued policy that encouraged the Catholic Church to reestablish control over the French Education system. In 1830 Charles issued a set of edicts (the July Ordinances) that imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections. This caused the rebellion called July Revolution. Charles fled to Britain and Louis Philippe took over. |
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| 1818-1893 Karl was one of the authors of the famous Communist Manifesto. He was a radical journalist which proclaimed ideas of revolutionary socialism. |
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| 1820-1895 on of the authors of the famous Communist Manifesto. Son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer. |
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| a short treatise written by two Germans Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, which proclaimed ideas of a revolutionary socialism. |
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| Condition of the Working Class in England |
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| written by Engels it was a damning indictment of industrial life written in 1844. |
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| Louis Napoleon became Napoleon III ruling from 1852-1870. He taught his contemporaries how authoritarian governments could use liberal and nationalistic forces to bolster their own power. he was a clever politician who was especially astute at understanding the popular forces of his day. |
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| Tsar Alexander II 1855-1881 came to power in the midst of the Crimean War turned his energies to a serious overhaul of the Russian System. he said the existing order of serfdom cannot remain unchaninged. March 3rd 1861 he issued emancipation. Peasants could know own property, marry and bring suites in the law courts. He also instituted zemstvos or local assemblies |
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| Students and intellectuals that followed Alexander Herzens’s writings formed a movement called populism whose aim was to create a new society through the revolutionary acts of the peasants. |
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| Leader of the Liberals 1868-1874 he was responsible for Legislation and government orders opened civil service positions to competitive exams rather than patronage, introduced the secret ballot for voting and abolished the practice of purchasing military commissions. Also the Education Act of 1870 attempted to make elementary schools available for all children. |
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| Leader of the conservative party also called the Tory. carried through the Reform act of 1867 which lowered monetary requirements for voting (taxes paid or income earned) voters went from 1 million voters to 2 million |
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| Congress System (concert of Europe) |
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| This was developed as a result of the European powers’ fear of revolution and war, and they wanted to maintain the new status quo they had constructed. This accord grew out of the reaffirmation of the Quadruple Alliance in November 1815. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria renewed their commitment against any attempted restoration of Bonapartist Power and agreed to meet periodically for conferences. During the first congress, it was decided that the four great powers would withdraw their army occupation from France and add France to the concerts of Europe. |
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| Greek War of Independence |
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| In 1821 the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters. A revival of Greek national sentiment at the beginning of the 19thcentury added to the growing desire for liberation from the Turks. The Greek revolt was soon transformed into a noble cause by an outpouring of European sentiment for the Greek’s struggle. In 1827 a combined British and French fleet went to Greece and defeated a large ottoman armada. A year later Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. By the treaty of Adrianople, the Ottoman Empire allowed Russia, France, and Britain to decide the fate of Greece. In 1830 the three powers declared Greece an independent kingdom. |
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| (1760-1830) Cheaper & faster to transport on water than on roads. By 1800, 600-700 miles of canals connected navigable rivers. The result was some 2000 miles of navigable inland waterway |
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| The luddites were skilled craftsmen in the midlands and northern England who in 1812 attacked machines that they believed threatened their livelihoods. These attacks failed to stop the industrial mechanization of Britain and have been viewed as utterly naïve. Some historians believe that this was an intense eruption of feeling against unrestrained industrial capitalism. (Class thinking) |
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| (1819) These closed the burschenschaften, provided for censorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision and control. Thereafter, except for a minor flurry of activity from 1830-1832, Metternich and the cooperative German rulers maintained the conservative status quo. |
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| (1830-1848) He became the constitutional king of France after the July revolution. He was soon called the bourgeoisie monarch because political support for his rule came from the upper middle class. To the upper middle class, the bourgeois monarchy represented the stopping place for political progress, but to the lesser bourgeoisie, and the Parisian working class, this was a huge disappointment because they had been completely excluded from political power. The rapid expansion of French industry, gave rise to an industrial working class concentrated in urban areas with horrible working and living conditions. |
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| Napoleon sough to dominate Mexican markets for French goods, so the emperor sent French troops to Mexico in 1861, in order to protect their interests in the midst of the upheaval caused by a struggle between liberal and conservative Mexican factions. Napoleon III installed archduke Maximilian of Austria as the new emperor of Mexico, but when French troops were needed in Europe maxmilian became an emperor without an army. He later surrendered to liberal Mexican force in 1867 and was executed. This was a blow to the prestige of the French emperor. |
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