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  • Louis is found guilty of treason by trial in front of The Convention

    • called “citizen capet”

    • sentenced to death by a narrow vote

      • group of moderates suggested he be sent to US instead

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      • first general draft into army in European history

      • increases size of French army

      • citizens serving in the army they would be much more reliable and dedicated than profession soldier or mercenaries

      • Military takes priority over everything else in the country

      • Gradual success, took time to train enlisted men, but eventually became effective

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    • area of France where resistance to actions of Republic were present

      • argued that the Committee had taken their King, taken their Church, and now (with levee en masse) were trying to take their young men

      • People killed in mass executions

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  • cultural efforts to redefine France

    • All acts are excusable in defense of the revolution

    • Patriarchal symbols become present

    • Create a new calendar

      • reset year 1 to the year of the announcement of the French Republic

    • Religion

      • Robespierre did not want to get rid of religion, but create his own

      • confiscated churches were transformed into temples of reason

      • refractory clergy are persecuted

      • effort to de-christianize France, let people turn their spiritual energies toward the state

Countermovement to the Jacobins

• against the terror-killing of innocents in countryside

The Directory

(and changes under government of)

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      • New elective body of government to replace the convention

      • Need to minimize the centralization of government, so is purposefully kept weak

      • Voting is re-restricted to property owners

        • and soldiers

      • was weak, unable to successfully mediate between Jacobins and people

        • continually needed help of French army

      • Royalist mob marching on the directory put down by Napoleon (an obscure officer at this point)

      • The army becomes central to the stability of France

Napoleon came from Corsica.

Island originally owned by Itlay but given over to France

Napoleon initially despised France

"Defender of the Revolution"

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• Napoleon given command of the Cisalpine Army

  • loss of moral

  • Napoleon transforms this army and takes them on the offensive rather than defensively camping out in the alps

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  • Army of the Republic

    • with disappearance of the aristocrats and the appearance of Napoleon, a young upstart officer the notion of the army placing more worth on nationalism than professionalism

    • nationalist acts of Napoleon as an officer recommended him to the soldiers as a sort of personification of the revolution

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    • Treaty of Campio Formio

      • Marked Austrian withdrawl from Italy (Austrian?)

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  • Abbe Sieyes' conspiracy

    • calls for new government b/c of civil wars in Paris and other places
      

      • directory should be disbanded and replaced by 3 individuals

        • 3 consuls to lead the French government

        • sees himself as one of these consuls

    • calls on Napoleon for help

      • Napoleon agrees on condition that he is also one of the 3 consuls

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    • Napoleon eventually becomes anxious with this system

      • suggests the creation for a position called the First Consul

        • 10 year term

        • ability to appoint successor

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    • Plebiscite is held

      • sort of an election with only one candidate, either vote for or against

      • vote is taken in favor of 3 consuls being established as form of Gov.

    • Napoleon holds plebiscite to vote on the creation of 1^st consul

      • approved

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• Napoleon influential as an administrator

  • initiates satellite republics

    • democratic governments based on gov. of French republic

    • in Italy, some German states; France is to influence these small governemnts and may pull out when they become established

    • helps create a following outside of France

Concordat w/ Catholic Church

(as a Domestic Reform)

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• Concordat w/ Catholic Church

  • officially recognizes Catholic church as majority religion in France

  • Napoleon nominates candidates for Bishops, Pope chooses from nominees

  • Napoleon would not grant the Catholic Church their property back because it had been sold

    • would not ask new land owners to sell back that land

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• Creates Napoleonic Code

  • legal equality for all French men

    • commoners & nobility all have same rights under the law

    • women and children must be represented by their husband/father

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• Educational Reform- creation of lycees

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    • national schools with national curriculum

    • standard curriculum with the Napoleonic Catechism at the heart

    • expanded education to the middle classes, but still not a universal education system

    • girls learning was almost exclusively domestic

    • boys given a wider scope

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• Foreign policy shown in letter to his brother shows that he is true to the ideals he has upheld in his own country

  • must give them the Napoleonic code rather than relying on military force

  • encourages taking the reforms outside of France

    • to create effective satellite republics

    • bases them on written constitutions

      • very firm commitments, new step to create firm rules

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• Romantic influence

  • nationalism inspires writers, painters, musicians

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• Bonaparte Dynasty

  • Increase in taxes and drafts over the Empire

  • Army of Republic becomes the Army of Empire

    • takes foreign soldiers into his army

  • when trouble occurs he replaces native leaders with family members of his own

  • Divorces Josephine to marry Austrian emperors daughter w/ hope of producing an heir

    • realizes his thrown was only as secure as his last battle

    • tries to create tradition of Napoleonic line

• Continental System= Embargo imposed by napoleon on the British.

• Britain is continuously at war with Napoleon

• Army of Republic vs. British Navy

• •  

    • • • on the continent the French were superior, but the British Navy was top

        • Napoleon attempts to force Britain to negotiate

          • orders an embargo on British trade; especially grain

          • creates pressure in Britain

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        • embargo backfires on Napoleon

          • Because of British imperial expansion.

            • Blockade on European continent

            • begin to travel to overseas colonies and create trade agreements

            • are able to compensate for loss of goods from Europe with imports from elsewhere

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  • Russia leaves continental system

  • Napoleon commands invasion of Russia

    • Russians continually retreat, Napoleon follows

      • Napoleons army is not accustomed to the Russian winter

    • Arrival at Moscow and finds the czar has ordered Moscow to be burnt

      • leaves French Army behind enemy lines with no provisions

        • defeated not by Russians, but by “Mother Winter”

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  • alliance made up of

    • Britain

    • Russia

    • Prussia

    • Austria

  • to confirm the seriousness of agreement each country must contribute 150K

  • each member committed for 20 years

  • there will be no separate negotiations with Napoleon

  • Battle of Nations- 1813

    • defeat of Napoleon

  • Push through and occupy Paris- Spring 1814

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  • with defeat of Napoleon, Quadruple Alliance meets in Vienna, hosted by Metternich-Austrian minister

  • Vienna chosen because it is significant as a royal city

    • very elegant

  • want to “turn back the clock” in Europe

  • generous treatment of France

    • got to keep it's prewar borders- France did not lose any land

  • Main goal of Congress was stability through balance of power

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    • Napoleons escape from Elba

      • moves through France for period known as the “100 Days”

      • Resurrects the army of the republic

        • is defeated decisively at Waterloo

          • France is forced to pay indemnity (for war damages)

          • Napoleon is exiled to St. Helena

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  • foundation is found in the written constitutions

    • explicit declarations of rights

  • property rights (property requirement)

    • voters made of up middle class, must be property owners

    • peasant class still severely looked down upon

written constitution

(as related to liberalism)

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  • Italian and Spanish liberalism

    • soldiers present written constitution for the King to sign

    • members of concert of europe refuse to let happen

    • in Spain, France sends soldiers

    • in Italy, Austria intervenes

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    • Troppeau-Libach doctrine

      • declare that they will intervene however necessary to prevent liberalism

    • Britain leaves on principle that they could not put down constitutional countries

      • “Splendid Isolation”

        • abandon continent

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    • Holy Alliance is formed

      • dedicated to upholding absolutism

      • made of Prussia, Austria, Russia

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      • Czars fear of French influence

        • attempt to quarantine soldiers who may have met with Napoleonic influence

        • death of czar

        • new czar Nicholas I

          • Moscow regiment offers a written constitution

          • rest of army ordered to fire on Moscow regiment

          • become liberalist martyrs

            • become known as “Decemberists”

          • sets pattern for Russian liberals for the remainder of the century

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  • Charles X-1824

    • believed that he had divine right, wanted no restictions on his authority

  • he tries to disband the camber of deputies

    • causes July Revolution

  • July revolution-1930

    • workers of paris went out to the streets and clog the streets with random objects

      • to baricade troops

      • Charles X flees the country

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  • After July Revolution there is a call for Louis Phillipe to take power

    • considered a constitutional monarchy

    • much more liberal than Charles X

    • had a middle class perspectives

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    • Rally to be held in Manchester-1819

      • abt. 50,000 people showed up

      • potential damage by urban mobs led mayor of manchester to send agents to arrest rally leadership

        • eventually soldier were called in and massacre occurred

          • abt. 11 died. 400 injured

      • called it “Peterloo” to compare it to Waterloo

        • British soldier fighting against their own citizens

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  • 1832 Reform Act

    • pushes voting from 10% to 20% of population

      • sets precedent of popular vote

    • culmination of liberalism in britain

• reaction to the enlightenment
• emphasis on emotion rather than reason

language

(in relation to ethnic nationalism)

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        • Language becomes major identifier of ethnicity

        • ethnicities are not compared

          • one is not seen as better than another, but there is an understanding that they are different

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        • Definitions of ethnicity come from peasant class, from the popular folk culture rather than the high culture

        • royalty and nobility are displaced in the development of ethnicity

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  • Austrian and Russian Empires

    • nationalism seen as a challenge to royal authority

    • changing borders b/c of ethnic divisions

      • especially in Balkans and in Russia

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• German Nationalism (after 1648)

  • changing borders become positive

  • call to unite german states

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      • Innovations in Britain
        

        • new tools

        • new crops: potato, clover

        • these are not complex scientific experiments, but instruments are developed by mechanics

          • rather than research they are using everyday experience

          • practical knowledge rather than book knowledge

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        • Primary form of farming subsistence agriculture: you grow enough to support yourself and provide on a year round basis.

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        • Early 1700s changes to Enclosure movement

          • parliament passes laws that make it possible to divide up common land to allow individual families to have their own plots of land

          • allowed families freedom to experiment

          • in Continental Europe

            • Napoleon divides up aristocratic manors

          • there are successes and failures

          • there is an overall increase in food production

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        • Thomas Malthus

          • economist

          • argued that increase in food production would cause increase in population that would far out number that food surplus

          • the poor will breed themselves out of existence

          • ignores peasantrys building of “nest eggs”

            • when economy is tight it takes longer to build this nest egg

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• Domestic System

  • first appears in Britain within the textile trade

  • idea of subcontracting

    • to take a complex production and make it manageable by a bunch of people

  • as innovations came along families had more leisure time

    • took up a second job

    • part time work allows them to improve standard of living

    • extra income

    • as more product is produced the price of actual product is produced

efficiency

(in relation to factory system)

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Factory System

• took place of domestic system

  • Greater efficiency

    • no time lost between place to place

  • operations become centralized into one place

  • new machinery, greater production

proletariat

(in relation to factory system)

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• Worker becomes the proletariat: worker who has lost control

  • workers are no longer in charge

  • cannot create own hours, holidays

  • during peak production working 12-16 hours a day

  • every person needs to be at the same pace

  • conditions become unhealthy

  • families become divided

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• Urban growth began to occur

  • growth of existing larger cities, development of smaller cities

  • close housing conditions

  • as more people came in overcrowding occurred

  • over burdened sanitation systems in slums

  • hygiene- transition from open field work to close quartered city work

    • animals housed in same rooms as people

  • industrial pollution added to these generally unsanitary conditions

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  • as a result of these conditions mortality rates doubled in the urban areas

    • most people died of respiratory disease

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    • cholera outbreaks

      • 100K in France

      • 50K in Britain

      • Symptoms

        • dehydration of body due to vomiting/diarrhea

      • caught through contact with polluted water

        • polluted by feces

      • remains a danger until permanent sewage systems are built

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  • moral economy

    • nobles and peasantry both look out for each other

    • vertical connection/ division

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  • political economy

    • division of upper class, middle class (bourgeoisie) and working class (proletariat)

    • in industrial society the middle class are making huge fortunes beyond that of the upper class

    • relations and divisions are much more horizontal, there is no sense of obedience to middle class and no sense of protection for the working class

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      • classical liberalism-Samuel Smiles

        • it is entirely up the the individual

        • by helping someone you create a dependency

        • aka laissez-faire

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      • reformist liberalism-Charles Dickens

        • evangelical duty

        • responsibility falls to middle class to dispense charity on individual basis

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•  
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      • Utopian socialism-Robert Owen

        • utopian-based on the highest ideal society

        • Owen

          • idea to build his own utopian society

          • started workers communities

            • let workers own their own factories in an attempt to keep them clean, operating well

• • • • Revolutionary Socialism-Karl Marx

        • despises utopians. Instead of creating a new world, workers need to seize the world that already exists

        • economics as primary base for everything

          • laws, religion, etc...

        • class conflict

          • constant struggle

          • reform only prolongs the inevitable revolt

            • revolution would come anyways

Louis Philippe

(February Revolution)

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• Louis-Philippe 1830

  • known as middle class king

  • supports the free market

  • suspected of corruption

  • dissent among workers

  • liberal frustration

    • promises of widening electorate have not come through

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  • February Revolution 1848

    • 22 February Louis-Philippe bans banquets:meetings of revolutionaries

      • workers put up barricades as a result of members of mob being shot by guards of a member of Louis=Philippes court

      • Louis-Philippe flees to London

      • Revolutionaries begin to sense a chance at a second revolution

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    • temporary second republic set up underneath Lamartine

      • elections held with universal male suffrage

      • to reward workers

        • creation of national workshops- state run factories

        • offer better working conditions

        • 10 hour workday

international revolutions

(view of 2nd French republic)

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      • Support for international revolutions

        • controversial b/c of danger of starting wars and ending up where they did in the past with a king again

          • last time revolution turned in that way, they lost control

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      • elections in April-1848

        • new voters 9.5 million

        • vote for “notables”

          • educated people of the villages, people that the new voter trusted

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        • elections allowing public vote resulting in a moderate constituent assembly

          • royalists:300

          • moderates:500

          • radical republicans:less than 100

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      • as a result of the shutdown of the national workshops the “Bloody June Days” occurred

        • barricades put back up in France

        • breakdown of worker/liberal alliance

        • Cavaignac arrests and exiles radical workers

        • workers reforms are scaled back

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        • Louis Napoleon

          • claims to be Bonapartes nephew

          • attempted to being revolutions in France prior to other political ambitions

          • Candidacy based on his Napoleonic lineage

          • elected as president

            • 1849 plebiscite to extend term

              • offers to take control of France for a ten year term rather than four

            • 1852 plebiscite

              • Emperor Napoleon III

Metternich

(in relation to Revolution in Austrian Empire)

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  • determined to wipe out ethic nationalism in Austrian Empire to prevent a war of “all against all”

  • predicted ethnic cleansing

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• Hungarian Revolutions (magyars)

  • magyars 2^nd most influential group

  • barricades go up in Budapest

  • form their own government- Budapest Parliament

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    • Budapest Parliament passes March Laws

      • liberal reforms

        • elections, widen vote

      • seek Magyar control

        • movement to eradicate german language, history, and tradition

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• Czech Revolutions (slavs)

  • Take over prague from austrian police force

  • slavic rather than german

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• Slavic Congress

  • call together all the Slavs no clear objective, but made non slavic groups fearful of what they could do all together

    • czechs, poles, slovaks, serbs

      • Russians as a sort of big brother to watch over the slavic peoples

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  • Austrian Empire (Hapsburgs) refuses to give in

    • move royal court to Innsbruck, away from Vienna

    • Ferdinand replaced by Franz-Joseph

      • Franz appeals to ethnic minorities

        • romanians, croabs

        • challenges the hungarians and czechs by securing support from these minorities

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      • emancipates the serfs

        • secures the support of peasantry

        • offers independence, something not given to them by the hungarians

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• “Young Italy”

  • romantic nationalist movement

  • led by Guiseppe Mazzinni

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• Kingdom of Piedmont (in north of italy)

  • attempt to drive austrians out of Milan and Venice

  • initially they see victory

    • have support of Pope Pius IX

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• Garibaldi and Roman Republicans

  • radical italian nationalist

    • want the people to be in charge

    • begin to attack the church b/c seen as authority in Rome

    • loses support of nationalism from the Pope after the killing of several Cardinals

  • Pope condemns nationalism and argues that all italian catholics should as well

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    • Berlin (Prussia)- revolts demanding liberal democratic reforms

    King of Prussia Frederick William IV is forced to back down

    • make concessions to the revolutionaries

    • promises a written constitution

      • wants to maintain position as commander in chief of Prussian Army

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  • Frankfurt Parliament- gathering of German nationalists in Frankfurt

    • ideal is government by the people, uniting Germany as a republic

    • new king in denmark

      • threatened, need an army to respond to these threats

      • workers suffer, wages drop. Workers become restless

    • to gain an army they ask Frederick William to become their kaiser again

      • he refuses and the frankfurt parliament is broken and disbands

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• After Frankfurt Parliament disbands, Germans are swept out, Frederick reinstates himself as king of prussia

• revolution has come full circle
  

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• Reaction against the failures of 1848

• politics of reality rather than ideals

• willingness to use any means possible to achieve a goal

  • goal here is about increasing royal power

    • how to use nationalism to further their own power

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  • Count Camillo di Cavour

    • Prime Minister of Piedmont

    • to unite italy the first thing is to appeal to the pocket book-economics

      • building a railroad to transport southern wheat to the north & industrial products to south

      • wants to create a free trade zone throughout united italy so no taxes

      • lowers prices to gain support for united italy

    • recognizes need for help in uniting italy

      • Sends troops to the Crimean war

        • opportunity to gain support from France and Britain

        • convinces France to join alliance

    • w/France goes to war with Austria in 1849

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    • Garibaldi returns from exile and seizes opportunity to begin peasant uprising at same time as Piedmont fighting for Venice
      

    • causes Piedmont to turn attention to move southward in a “race to Rome”

      • Piedmont forces reach Rome first

      • Garibaldi is convinced to support King of Piedmont

      • Italy is partially united as a Monarchy

        • Austrians hold Venice

        • Pope holds Rome

Prussia

(in relation to italian realpolitik)

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      • 1866 Austrians go to war with Prussia

        • italians take venice

      • 1870 French into another war

        • italians take Rome

        • Pope still refuses to recognize united Italy and retreats to a collection of building that come to be called the Vatican state

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    • What would united Germany look like?

      • Grossedeutsche

        • Austria included

      • Kleindeutsche

        • Austria left out. Prussia included as dominant group

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    • Economic zollverein

      •  

        • free trade area (like italy)

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•  
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      • dispute over taxes

        • within this debate Bismark emerges as important character

          • known as the “Crazy Junker”- supporter of the King

            • tells King to collect money whether Parliament approves or not

          • is made Prime Minister

          • embraces german nationalism

            • realizes that Prussian Kingdom could become stronger

            • Prussia to control Germany, Germany to control Europe

              • done through a series of wars

              • builds up an industrial army

          • uses army also as a threat rather than just a force

• ruler of Prussia, Bismark as his supporter
• would become the ruler of the United German Empire after the Franco Prussian War