RDA- men: 1.2 mg, women 1.1 mg

Sources: pork, tuna, whole grains, legumes

(heat and alkalinity labile)

Absorbed in free form (TDP and TPP from animals Dephosphorylated first) in jejunum, diffusion or carriers ThTR1/ThTr

Transported: free or albumin, mostly exists as TDP

Funct/Mech:  

energy transfer (co-enzyme in PDH)

co-enzyme in synth of pentose

NT synth acetylcholine and GABA (PDH dep)

useful form is TDP

necessary for transketolase (DNA synth) TPP

Deficiency/Assessment

Beriberi: headache, confusion, tingling, feeling loss, fatigue, muscle pain

Transketolase activity: up 15-25% def, >25% severe

or measure thiamin in blood or urine

NO UL

RDA: men: 1.3 mg, women: 1.1 mg, pregnant: 1.4 g, lactating: 1.6 mg

Sources: soybeans, dairy, spinach, almonds, squid, egg, herring, beef

Absorption: FAD/FMN/ribophosphate released by digestion absorbed by energy dep carrier in SI

Found: higheste level in liver, kidney, heart

Funct/Mech: 

energy transformation as FAD (energy into ATP)

cofactor for: 

needed to make pyridoxic acid from pyridoxal

succinate dehydrogenase

fatty acid B oxidation

activation of vitamin A

fomation of active folate

regeneration of glutithione

Excreted as: riboflavin in urine

Assessment: urinary concentrations or erythrocyte glutithione reductase activity (increased in deficiency with addition of B2)

Deficiency: riboflavinosis (usually with starvation): angular stomatitis, cheilosis (cracks around mouth), glossitis, edema

NO UL

RDA: men: 16 mg, women: 14 mg, pregnant: 18 mg, lactating: 17 mg

Sources: mushrooms, barley, brown rice, peanuts, chicken, salmon

Absorption: NAD/NADPH hydrolyzed to nicotinamide and absorbed via passive diffusion in stomach and SI

Trans: as nicotinamide or nicotinic acid

Funct/Mech: 

coenzyme in oxid/reduc rxn (biosynthesis/folate metab)

non redox donor of ADP ribose

Assessment: metabolites in urine, <0.8 mg/d N1-methylnicotinamide decreased amount

Excretion: NAD--nicotinamide and ADP ribose--excretable products in urine

Deficiency: Pellegra (sensitivity to light, aggression, dermatitis, confusion, 4 D dermatitis, dementia, diarrhea, death)

UL: 35mg/d related to itchy rashes, headaches, nausea, liver complications

AI: men/women 5 mg/d

Sources: whole grains, legumes, eggs, meat, most foods

Absorption: free or bound (hydrolyzed to free) absobed via passive diffusion in Jejunum, at low concentrations absorbed by Na dep multivitamin transport/carrier

Funct/Mech: 

component of coA

part of acyl protein carrier

necessary for acetylation of prt/sug/drugs

necessary for cholesterol synthesis

necessary for heme synthesis

Transport: free in blood

Excreted: intact

Deficiency: burning feet, usually due to starvation

Assessment: urinary pantothenate

NO UL

AI: men/women 30 ug, lactation: 35 ug

Sources: egg yolk (inhib by avidin in whites), liver, salmon, yeast, avocado

Absorption: usually bound to protein, digest by pepsin and SI protease/peptidase and biotinidase absorbed in jejunum and ileum by passive diffusion in mass doses, usually SMVT (inhibited by alcohol)

Transported: free state

Found: plasma, muscle, liver, brain

Funct/Mech:

pyruvate carboxylase, acetyl coA carboxylase, propionyl coA carboxylase

biotinilation (better wratting around histones) less express

Assessment: urine excretion

Excretion: metabolytes in urine

Deficiency: rare because made by bact. in the colon

dermatitis, hair loss, fatigue, caused by mutation in biotinidase (intravenous biotin)

NO UL

RDA: men/women 1.3mg/d

Sources: banana, barley, brown rice, potato, chicken salmon, beef, pork

Absorption: PN,PL,PM dephosphorylated in SI and absorbed by passive diffusion in jejunum

Transported: free in blood, different forms PN=pyridoxine, PL=pyridoxal, PM=pyridoxamine, PLP=pyridoxal phophate

Liver: all forms can be converted to PLP in liver (dep on FMN)

Funct/Mech: 

coenzyme transamination/dehydration/transulfhydration, cleavage, racemization, glycogen degradation

modulates gene expression

Excretion: as 4-pyridoxic acid in urine

Assess: plasma PLP, urinary B6 or 4-pyridoxic acid, or erythrocyte transaminase (before/after add B6)

Deficiency: rare, nausea, convulsions, skin disorders, fatigue, weakness, microcytic anemia (heme synthesis)

Toxicity: UL=100g, irreversible nerve damage, neuropathy, impaired gait at 1-6g/day

RDA: men/women 400ug/d, pregnant 600ug/d

Sources: legumes, asparagus, leafy greens, broccoli, beef liver, crab

Absorption:  digested from polyglutamate to monoglutamate form (supplements already in mono form), found in mono form in blood

Funct/Mech: DNA synth, cell division, can cause spina bifida and anencephaly in infants of deficient mothers

Assessment: serum/plasma folate or RBC concentration, or N formiminoglutamate excretion, elevated homocysteine

Def: macrocytic megaloblastic anemia, chronic diarrhea, impaired immune function, target for cancer drugs (all processed grains fortified with 1.5 ug/g, 45ug in a slice of toast)

Toxicity: UL 1000ug because masks B12 deficiency

RDA: men/women 2.4ug/d

Sources: milk, oysters, clams, herring, salmon, beef, pork

Absorption: released from proteins in stomach and binds to R protein, then in duodenum R prt hydrolyzed and binds to IF, endocytosed in ileum by cubilin receptors

Transport: newly absorbed trans by TCII, also in blood with TCI and TCIII

Function/Mech: needed for RNA and DNA synthesis

Assessment: serum B12, serum MMA and homocysteine, urine MMA, schillings test for pernicious anemia (shot then oral B12)

Excretion: very little change before excreted

Def: slow (large liver stores), masked by folate, high homocysteine, neurological problems

NO UL

RDA:  men/women 150 ug/d

Sources: seaweed, navy beans, potato, oatmeal, seafood, egg, milk, beef liver

Absorption: present in food as organic compounds, digested into free form and absorbed completely in the stomach

Transport: free iodide in the blood, concentrated in the thyroid

Funct/Metab: synthesis of thyroid hormone, thyroid hormones promote lipolysis, muscle contration, anabolism, hear rate and nutrient absorption

Assessment: urinary iodide, thyroid size, serum TSH

Excretion: mostly urine, some in feces and sweat

Def: leading preventable cause of mental retardation, weight gain, cold intolerance, goiter

UL=1,100 ug also causes goiter

AI: men 35ug/d women 25ug/d

Sources: broccoli, green beans, potatoes, apple, turkey, beef, organ meants

Absorption: passive/facilitated diffusion in the jejunum

enhancers: AA, picolinate, vit C

inhibitors: neutral/alkaline environ., phytates

Transport: as Cr3+ with transferrin or alb or other, stored in the kidneys, liver, muscle, spleen, heart, pancreas, bone (may be stored with Fe)

Funct/Mech: enhances function of insulin, decreases insulin resistance

Assessment: ? serum chromium/urinary chromium

Excretion: in urine, free

Def: increase blood glucose, decrease muscle endurance, compete with iron for transport

NO UL, may decrease absorption of zinc and iron at high levels

RDA: men 90mg/d women 75mg/day, +35mg smoker

Sources: strawberries, sweet potato, beef liver, clams

Absorption: no digestion, carrier SVCT1/2 (sodium dep vitamin C transporter) all of SI

Funct/Mech: 

antioxidant (electron donor)

cofactor for 8 rxn

     (carnitine/carnosine synth,

     collagen synth (part of bone matrix),

     norepi synth,

     reductes vit E,

     increase iron absorption, 

     regenerates glutithione

Excretion: metabolized into xylose, oxalic acid, threonic acid, xylonic acid in urine

Assessment: plasma levels <50umol/L suboptimal, <20umol/L marginal, <11umol/L severe deficiency

Def: 1st sign fatique (carnitine B oxid), called scurvy-hemorrhagic signs, hyperkeratosis or hair follicle, hypochondriasis (psychological)

-supplement for stress 2g , extreme exercise and smoking

Tox: relatively non toxic, cannot get too much from food

-kidney stones, diarrhea, nausea, excess iron (hemachromatosis)

UL=2,000mg

RDA: men/women 15mg/d

Sources: sunflower/safflower oil, almonds, hazelnuts, peanuts, spinach

     RRR a-tocopherol provides 67mg/100IU (natural)

     all-rac-a-tocopherol provides 45mg/100IU (synth)

Absorption: passice diffusion in jejunum, improved with dietary lipid (in chylomicron), some in VLDL, stored in adipose tissue

Funct/Mech: antioxidant protection of PUFA, may prevent oxidation of LDL-C, can interfere vitamin K

Assessment: plasma cncn 5-20ug/mL normal, erythrocyte hemolysis test(crude measure)

Excretion: metab by cytochrome p450, metabolites excreted in urine

Def: (rare, w/ fat malabsorption), muscle weakness, loss of coordination, retina damage, hemolytic anemia (oxidative damage)

Tox: hemorrhaging, easy bruising

UL: 1,000mg

RDA: men 900ugRE, women 700ugRE

Sources: carrots, spinach, watermelon, mango, liver, herring

Absorption: digested free of food matrix, absorbed 70-90% with fat

    carotenoids (5% uncooked, 60% in pure oil)

carotenoids and retinoids metabolized somewhat in enterocyte

12mg B carotene is 1ugRE

     1. can be stored in liver

     2. excreted in bile salts

     3. circulated with RBP and transthyretin

Funct/Mech: 

     retinyl palmitate (suppl. form, stable in foods)

     retinol (made from ret-p in lumen of SI)

     retinal (important for Rod function in eye, night blind)

     retinoic acid (influence differentiation and proliferation by binding to receptors on the nucleus)

Excretion: in urine (60%) and feces, carotenoids metabolized and excreted in bile also (returned via enterohepatic circulation)

Def: rare in US, night blindness, immune dysfunction, hyperkeratosis, permanent blindness, leading cause of preventable blindness (golden rice)

Tox: vomit, fatigue, joint pain, liver damage, reduced bone density, death (accutane may cause birth defects)

UL: 3,000ugRE (retinoids)

clasts (break down bone, resorption) from monocyte stem cell lineage

blasts (make osteoid which is mineralized by hydroxyapatite) from osteoprogenitor lineage

RDA: adults <70 15ug/d, >70 20 ug/d

Sources: some mushrooms, sun, fish, egg yolk, liver

Absorption: no digestion, passive diffusion in SI (most in distal) transported in the chylomicron

    dietary calciferols

       ergocalciferol (D2, not as affective in large doses)

       cholecalciferol (D3)

    suppl.

       caldidiol (25-hydroxy vitamin D3)

Production: dehudrocholesterol +uv light=previtD, previtD binds to DBP and is transported to the liver and then kidney where it is fully activated

Funct/Mech: maintains Ca Homeostasis by increasing calcium absoption and release and reabsorption, regulates BP

decreases HD risk,

binds to VDR and RXR which influences the translation of ~50 genes

Assessment: plasma vit D <50ng/dL 250HD3, low

Def: rickets (in children) poor bone calcification, osteoid accumulates, weak bones

osteomalacia (in adults) increased PTH/alkaline phophatase, unable to absorb Ca, bone pain, risk (fat malabsorp, obese, older)

Tox: hypercalcemia, muscle weakness, heart arrhythmias, kidney stones

UL: 100 ug

RDA: men/women 1,000mg/d, men >70 and women >51 need 1,200 mg/d

Sources: sesame seeds, spinach, molasses, cheese, yogurt, milk, sardines with bone

Absorption: 5 systems, energy dep duodenal and prox jejunal transport, paracellular (passive in ileum), 2 others in SI.

Transport: with either albumin or transthyretin, complexed with citrate or free in the blood

Regulation: PTH, calcitriol, calcitonin

Excretion: urine (increased by sodium, protein, and caffeine), feces and some from skin

Assessment: dual-energy x-ray absorptometry

Def: hypocalcemia, muscle spasms, convulsions, low bone density

Tox: interferes with the absorp of Zn, Fe, Mg

UL: 2,500 mg

-porous bone

-risk-age (postmenopause), older men, vit D def, decreased estrogen, family hx, early menopause

- amenorrhea, low dietary Ca and little wt bearing exercise

- smoking, excessive alcohol, caffeine

RDA: men/women 700mg/d

Sources: sunflower seeds, lentils, black beans, almonds, cheese, yogurt, beef

Absorption: hydrolyzed to inorganic phosphate, saturable carrier mediated active transport (enhanced by calcitriol, inhib by phytic acid and excessive Mg/Ca) or diffusion

Funct/Mech: energy storage in nucleotide/side phosphates, creatine phosphate, makes hydroxyapatite w/ Ca, part of phospholipid, modifies (activates) enzymes

Excretion: urinary

Assessment: def. rare, serum cncn, urinary excretion

Def: bone malformation/pain, muslce weakness

Tox: altered Ca metab (osteoporosis), excessive vit D, kidney disease, plasma >4.5mg/dL, low Ca

UL: 4,000 mg or 3,000mg if over 70

AI: men 4 mg, women 3mg

Sources: brewed tea, raisins, canned crab, white grape juice

Funct/Mech: bone/tooth mineralization, prevent dental caries, ligament and tendon strength

Def: dental caries, bone fracture

Tox: rare, fluorosis, stiff joints

UL: 10mg

AI: men 120ug, women 90ug

Sources: kale, spinach, broccoli, brussel sprouts, soybean oil, bact. in colon

Absorption: in micelles and transported in chylomicron, small stores in liver 

Forms: phylloquinone (plants) menaquinone (bacteria) menadione (synth. supplements)

Funct/Mech: coenzyme in carboxylation of substrate to functional form, make clotting proteins active by carboxylating glutamic acid, post translation modification of bone proteins allowing Ca to bind to hydroxyapatite

Interaction: warfarin prevents vit K recycling-thin blood

Excretion: in bile

Assessment: plasma/serum phylloquinone, clotting or prothrombine time, untercarboxylated proteins. 

Def: difficult, impaired clotting/excessive bleeding

Tox: not stored as much as other vitamins, quick turnover

NO UL

RDA: men 8 mg, women 18 mg (19 to 50)

Sources: meats, spinach, fortified grains

Absorption: hydrolyzed from hemoglobin/myoglobin to heme iron and absorbed by heme carrier 1, or absorbed as Fe2+ after being reduced from ferric (Fe3+) by acids and reductases carrier DCT/DMT (divalent metal cation)

Enhance: sugar (frc/sorbitol), acids (ascorbic, citric, lactic), protein, mucin

Inhibit: polyphenols, oxalic acid, phytates, Co, Zn, Mn, Pb

Funct/Mech: oxygen transport via hemoglobin in RBC, part of some proteins, cytochromes, monoxygenases (add hydroxyl group), carnitine and collagen synthesis

Assessment: hemoglobin cncn and hematocrit (% of RBC in blood)

Deficiency: low ferriting 1st sign, anemia women 12-16g/dL Hgb men 14-18mg/dL, microcytic hypochromic fatigue, pale

Toxicity: nausea, diarrhea, death 20mg/kg, hemochromatosis (HFE)

UL: 45mg 

RDA: men 11 mg, women 8 mg

Sources: wheat germ, refried beans, crab, oysters, beef, turkey, chicken, ham

Absorption: hydrolyzed from AA and nucleic acids in stomach/SI, carrier mediated absorption or paracellular/diffusion

Enhancers: citric acid, picolinic acid, prostoglandins, AA

Inhibitors: phytate, oxalate, polyphenols, folate, iron, calcium

Stored: in metallothionein in liver, kidney, muscle, skin, apatite

Funct/Mech: cofactor for ~200 rxn, bone formation, skin integrity, converts retinol to retinal, synth of retinol binding protein

Assessment: serum/plasma, metallothionein, urinary/hair zn content

Deficiency: rare, poor immune function, dermatitis, diarrhea, poor appetite

Toxicity: n/v, increased LDL, synth of metallotionein can cause anemia

UL: 40 mg

AI: 2.3 mg men/women

Sources: pineapple, pecans, almonds, brown rice, peanuts

Absorption: active transport throughout the SI (women absorb more)

Enhance: histidine, citrate

Inhibit: fiber, phytate, oxalate, iron, Cu

Funct/Mech: enzyme activator, part of metalloenzymes, bone cartilage and connective tissue synth, urea synth, AA metab, antioxidant roles, 2nf messenger pathways

Assessment: plasma/serum

Deficiency: excessive Fe or Mg, associated with osteoporosis, DM and epilepsy

Toxicity: neurological problems, respiratory effects (chronic exposure)

UL: 11mg/d

RDA: 900 ug men/women

Sources: hazelnuts, baked beans, mushrooms, crab, lobster, turkey, chicken, ham

Absorption: hydrolyzed from proteins and absorbed in stomach/SI, reduced then active carrier transport or passive diffusion

Transported: bound loosely to a protein, distributed on ceruloplasmin

Enhancers: histidine, cytheine, organic acids, citric , gluconic, lactic, acetic, malic

Inhibitors: phytate, Zn, iron, excessive antacids

Funct/Mech: part of superoxide dismutase (antioxidant, part of cytochrome oxidase, lysyl oxidase, immune function, gene expression,

ascorbate/zinc antagonists decreases activity

molybdenum increases excretion

Deficiency: anemia, bone/connective tissue abnormalities

Toxicity: GI distress, liver disease, Wilson's disease (genetic defective protein binding)

UL: 10,000ug

RDA: 55 ug men/women

Sources: oatmeal, brown rice, oysters, tuna, lobster, pork, shrimp

Absorption: unregulated absorption in SI

Enhancers:  reduced glutithione, vitamins CAE

Inhibitors: heavy metals (Hg), phytic acid

Funct/Mech: glutithione peroxidase (antioxidant), thioredoxin reductase (antioxidant), selenophosphate synthase, iodothyronine 5' deiodinases (thyroid hrmn synth)

Assessment: blood plasma cncn, activities of selenoproteins (glutithione peroxidase), urinary cncn, exreted in the urine

Deficiency: Keshan's disease (cardiomyopathy r/t coxsackie B virus), Kashin Beck's disease (osteoarthropathy)

Toxicity: in miners, with supplementation, brittle hair and nails, loss of hair/nails

UL: 400 ug

AI: 1,500 mg

Sources: processed foods, table salt

Funct/Mech: most abundant extracellular cation, 30% of body Na is on bone surface ready for release, linked to high blood pressure in some people

Deficiency: hyponatremia, nausea, seizures

Toxcity: swelling, increased BP, associated with CVD and HTN patients

UL: 2,300

Definition: increased resistance in peripheral vessels, constricted arteries, excess fluid circulation, targe 150/90

Normal 120/80 mmHg

Pre- 120-139/80-89 mmHg

Stage 1 140-159/90-99

Stage 2 >160/>100

crisis at 180/110 mmHg

AI: 2,300 mg

Deficiency: increased blood pH, abnormal heart rhythm, poor blood flow

Toxicity: increased BP

UL: 3,500 mg (associated with UL for sodium)

RDA: 4,700mg 

Sources: fruits and vegetables, 1 cup of potato is 600mg

Deficiency: muscle cramps, muscle weak, loss of appetite, heart arrhythmias

UL: none, no known toxicity

AI: men 3.7 L, women 2.7L or 2.2-2.6L

Funct/Mech: cell structure, reaction medium, cooling in perspiration, major part of blood, retains heat.

Dehydration: thirst, tingling, nausea, difficult to concentrate, increased temperature, increased pulse, weakness, spasms, kidney failure

Hyperhydration: medical conditions such as HTN, congestive heard failure and pulmonary edema, hyponatremia, excess fluid intake

Regulation: RAAS

UL: none