Movement of forearm and hand that rotates radius medially around longitudinal axis so that the palm faces posteriorly

Movement of forearm and hand that rotates radius laterally around longitudinal axis so that the palm faces anteriorly

pad of the 1^st digit is brought to another digit pad

? cervical
? thoracic
? lumbar
? sacral: fused to form sacrum
? coccygeal: fused to form coccyx

7 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral: fused to form sacrum
4 coccygeal: fused to form coccyx

Primary: Thoracic + Sacral

Secondary: Cervical + Lumbar

abnormal increase in thoracic curvature

• Vertebral body
• Vertebral arch
• Vertebral foramen (formed by arch and posterior part of body
• Intervertebral foramina (formed by vertebral notches in pedicles above/below 
• seven processes (spinous process, two transverse processes, four articular processes)

A. Cervical curvature

B. Thoracic curvature

C. Lumbar curvature

D. Sacral Curvature

E. Coccyx

A. Pedicle

B. Transverse Process

C. Lamina

D. Spinous Process

E. Body

• Zygapophysial joints. 
• Synnovial joints of the plane type. 
• Articular capsule surrounds joint
• lined with synovial membrane

• Between occipital protuberance and atlas that allows flexion/extension of head.
• synovial-condyloid
• extend from anterior and posterior arches of atlas to posterior margins of foramen magnum

• Transverse ligament of atlas
• synovial joint between dens and anterior arch of atlas
• cruciform ligament
• alar ligaments
• tectorial membrane

• strong ligament extending from the tubercles on the lateral masses of the atlas
• anchors the dens of axis against the anterior arch of the atlas

• bands from the transverse ligament up to occipital bone and down to axis
• resembles cross

• Extend from the dens to the lateral margins of the foramen magnum
• limit lateral rotation and side-to-side movements
• attach skull to axis

• 2 lateral and 1 medial synovial joints
• major motion is rotation and occurs aronnd dens ("axis")
• articular cartilage between the dens and the anterior arch and separate synovial cavities for the two articulations
• Alar ligaments pass up the side of the dens to the occipital condyles
• apical ligament
• thin ligament passes from the transverse ligament inferiorly to the body of c2

• between lateral masses of atlas/axis
• classified as planar synovial joints but both articular facets are actually convex in the sagittal plane
• incongruous with large triangular gaps aneriorly and posteriorly filled with synovial folds/meniscoid inclusions
• enclosed by a loose fibrous capsule

• between the dens and anterior arch of the atlas and transverse ligament
• articular cartilage between the dens and anterior arch and separate synovial cavities for the two articulations

• Passes superiorly on longus colli muscle and enters foramen transversarium of c6
• pierces the posterior atlanto-occipital membrane, through foramen magnum, and joins other side to form Basilar artery at the pontomedullary junction

• gray matter
• dura, arachnoid, pia mater
• dorsal rot and ganglion
• mixed spinal nerve
• white matter
• dorsal, ventral hornes
• ventral root
• anterior and posterior primary rami