Term
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Definition
| The condition of having an abnormally low body temperature, typically one that is dangerously low. |
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Term
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Definition
| The condition of having a body temperature greatly above normal. |
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Term
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Definition
| Defined by a body temperature of greater than 40.6 °C (105.1 °F) due to environmental heat exposure with lack of thermoregulation. |
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Term
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Definition
| The branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Maintaining a consistent internal environment. Blood sugar, blood pH, concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide. |
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Term
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Definition
A regulatory mechanism in which sensors detect a change in the internal environment and trigger structures called effectors to oppose or reduce the change. This cycle of detection, response, and change is called a negative feedback loop.
A negative feedback loop restores the internal environment to a set point. |
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Term
| Regulators vs. Conformers |
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Definition
| Both are strategies to cope with changing environment. Regulators maintain homeostatis for a certain variable. Conformers however, do not have a set point for the variable (such as temperature in cold-blooded animals), and so conformers allow the variable to fluctuate based on external changes. |
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Term
| Explain endotherms vs. ectotherms and homeotherms vs. heterotherms in regard to thermoregulation. |
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Definition
Thermoregulation is the control of temperature. Endothermy and ectothermy are both strategies to heat the body.
Endotherms (sometimes referred to as warm-blooded) generate heat internally with their own bodies. 90% of energy consumed is used to maintain body temperature.
Ectotherms (sometimes referred to as cold-blooded) obtain heat from the environment—usually the sun. Ectotherms do not rely on metabolic energy and as a result are able to expend 30-90% of energy for growth and reproduction.
Homeotherm - an animal with a set body temperature that is maintained despite environmental conditions.
Heterotherm - Animal whose body temperature fluctuates with environment. |
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Term
| What are the 4 methods of heat exchange? Explain each. |
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Definition
Conduction - two objects touching
Convection - water/air passing by an object
Radiation - object transfers heat without touching
Evaporation - loss of heat as liquid turns to gas. |
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Term
| What are the 4 methods of regulating body temperature? Explain each. |
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Definition
Physical - walruses have thick coats of blubber to provide insulation from the environment
Behavioral - African ground squirrel shades itself with its tale to prevent overheating.
Physiological - by panting, dogs make efficient use of the loss of heat by evaporation.
Cellular - human babies have a special type of fat that produces heat instead of ATP when broken down. |
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Term
| Explain osmoconformers, osmoregulators, and malpighian tubules in regard to osmoregulation. |
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Definition
Osmoregulation is the regulation of water content and of the concentrations of dissolved solutes that influence osmosis. Gain: drinking, eating, osmosis, cellular respiration; Loss: Urination, defecation, evaporation, osmosis.
Osmoconformers - let the solute concentration of their body fluids reflect that of their environment. Most invertebrates.
Osmoregulators - maintain their fluids and solute concentrations within narrow ranges that differ from those of their environment. Most vertebrates.
Malpighian tubules - in insects these small tubes regulate osmotic balance by removing excess solutes from the circulatory system. |
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Term
| What is the function of the kidneys? |
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Definition
In most vertebrates the kidneys regulate water balance and solute concentration.
Filtration (of blood) > Reabsorption (of water and solutes) > Excretion (of waste through urine) |
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Term
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Definition
Fundamental unit of the human kidney. Approximately one million nephrons make up one human kidney.
The nephron consists of two basic components: a nephron tubule and a mass of blood vessels that work together to accomplish the tasks of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. |
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Term
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Definition
| The blood-filtering unit of the nephron. It is a mass of capillaries surrounded by a ball-like structure called Bowman's Capsule. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ball-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus is called Bowman’s capsule. Each Bowman’s capsule is connected to a single, long, urine-producing tube that excretes its filtered fluid into a collecting duct. |
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Term
| What is the organization of animal bodies? |
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Definition
Cell < Tissue < Organ < Organ System
Some animals (like corals and sea anemones) only have 2 levels of organization. |
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Term
| What are the 4 categories of animal tissues? Define each. |
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Definition
Connective - Composed of cells interspersed throughout a matrix. Provides structure and support, anchors cells, and regulates communication between cells. Produces collagen and elastin.
Epithelial - Composed of cells that cover and line most surfaces of animal bodies. Forms the skin and lining of the lungs, digestive tract, and blood vessels. Responsible for producing sweat, saliva, and mucus.
Muscle - Composed of cells that can contract. Generates movement, pumps fluid, and moves substances. Smooth muscle tissue is not consciously controlled an does not need nervous stimulation.
Nervous - Composed of specialized cells that send and receive electrical signals. Stores and transmits information. Allows animals to sense and respond to stimuli |
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Term
| Name the 11 organ systems. |
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Definition
Digestive System
Circulatory System
Respiratory System
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Nervous System
Immune and Lymphatic System
Urinary/Excretory System
Endocrine System
Integumentary System
Skeletal System
Muscular System |
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Term
| Explain hemolymph and interstitual fluid in regard to the Open Circulatory System. |
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Definition
| Interstitual fluid (also called extracellular fluid) fills the space between cells. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain Open Circulatory System |
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Definition
| Found in insects and most mollusks; it has one fluid, called hemolymph, that not only circulates to transport nutrients, gases, and waste products but also surrounds each cell in the body. |
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Term
How does a two-chambered heart function?
What about a three-chambered heart?
A four-chambered heart? |
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Definition
Two chambers - One circuit of flow. Blood follows a circular path. Blood passes first into the atrium, and from there is pumped into the ventricle which pumps blood to the gills. Blood picks up oxygen through the gills and delivers it to body tissue and then returns to the heart. Cycle repeats.
Three chambers - Blood from the lungs and the rest of the body collect in the left and right atria, respectively, but it then flows into a single ventricle. The oxygenated blood from the lungs and deoxygenated blood from the body are pumped side by side into arteries that direct it to the body and lungs, respectively.
Four chambers - Two circuits of flow. Oxygen-poor blood passes through the right atrium and then into the right ventricle. From there it is pumped to lungs, and then returns oxygen to heart. This first circuit of blood flow is called the pulmonary circuit. |
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Term
| Explain how blood flows to and from the heart. |
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Definition
Flows to and from the heart using arteries to pump blood to capillaries and veins to pump blood back to heart.
Pulmonary and systemic circuits. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain a pulmonary circuit. |
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Definition
| First circuit of blood flow in a four-chambered heart. Blood is pumped to the lungs where it picks up oxygen and then returns to the heart. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain a systemic circuit. |
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Definition
| Blood is pumped to the tissues of the body, where it delivers oxygen. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain veins. |
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Definition
| Vessels that carry blood away from capillaries back toward the heart. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain arteries. |
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Definition
| Vessels that carry blood away from the heart and to the capillaries. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain capillaries. |
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Definition
| Tiny, porous vessels that bring blood close to tissue, enabling the diffusion of gases, nutrients, and other molecules into and out of tissue. Packed with red blood cells. |
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Term
| What is Lub-Dup and what is EKG in regard to the heart? |
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Definition
"Lub-dup" is the sound of a heartbeat and come from two sets of valves that help keep blood flowing in the proper direction. Atrioventricular valves shut preventing blood from flowing back into the atria ("Lub"). Semilunar valves slam shut, preventing blood from flowing back into the ventricles ("Dup")
EKG - Electrocardiogram - used to measure the rhythmic contractions of the heart initiated by the sinoatrial node. |
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Term
| How is blood flow directed? |
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Definition
Blood flow is directed by capillaries. Muscle contractions which control precapillary sphincters reduce blood flow to hands or feet in cold weather, saving warmth for vital organs.
Valves within veins also keep blood on course by preventing it from moving backward. |
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Term
| List the individual ingredients that constitute blood. |
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Definition
| Plasma, Hematocrit, Erythrocytes, Stem Cells, Leukocytes, Hemoglobin, Platelets |
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Term
| Define and/or explain hemophilia. |
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Definition
| A condition in which blood platelets lack properly functioning clotting factors. usually due to genetic mutation. Cuts and scrapes can lead to uncontrolled bleeding. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain anemia. |
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Definition
| Anemia is a condition in which an individual has too few red blood cells. Common cause is iron deficiency. |
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Term
| Explain the difference between systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. Which number is which in a blood pressure reading? |
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Definition
Systolic pressure (the top number) is the force of blood on artery walls when the heart contracts and pumps blood to arteries. Normal range is 90-140.
Diastolic pressure (bottom number) is the force of blood on artery walls while heart is between beats. Normal range is 60-90. |
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Term
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Definition
| Blood pressure above 120/80. High blood pressure. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain coronary arteries, atherosclerosis, and arteriosclerosis. Explain the role of LDL and HDL in regard to cardiovascular disease. |
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Definition
Coronary Arteries are the blood vessels that deliver oxygen and nutrients to the heart itself.
Atherosclerosis - Cholesterol in the bloodstream forms a fatty plaque that reduces the flow of blood.
Arteriosclerosis - Calcium deposited in the plaque causes it to harden.
Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL)- Bad cholesterol. Tends to adhere to artery walls.
High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) - Good cholesterol. Tends to remove cholesterol from arteries and deliver it to liver cells where it is broken down. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain lymphs and lymphnodes in regard to the lymphatic system. Explain how this relates to elephantitis. |
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Definition
Lymphs - Substance consisting of fluids, proteins, and other substances that have leaked into the interstitial fluid from the blood. Absorbed by lymphatic capillaries.
Lymphnodes - Patches of connective tissue through which lymph travels. Compartmentalized sacs filled with white blood cells that remove dangerous materials (bacteria, cancer cells, viruses, pathogens) from the body.
When lymph vessels are damaged, fluid recovered by the lymphatic system cannot be returned to the circulatory system, and the limbs swell, often enormously. This disease is called elephantitis. |
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Term
| List the different means of gas exchange, and briefly explain each. |
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Definition
Direct diffusion - gas exchange occurs directly between cells and the environment. Method used by single-celled and very small multicellular organisms.
Respiratory sacs - Ballon-like sacs that increase surface area for gas exchange.
Gills - Elaborate extensions of the body that exchange significant amounts of gases dissolved in water.
Tracheae - Network of branching tubes connected to tiny openings on the body called spiracles. Occur in most terrestrial insects.
Lungs - Internal organs with highly branched, moist surfaces. Occur in most land vertebrates. |
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Term
| What is the countercurrent exchange system? Define lamellae, filaments, and gill arch, and explain each. |
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Definition
Lamellae - Disk-like sructures stacked along the filaments. Contain capillaries where gas exchange takes place.
Filaments - Thread-like structures, composed of hundreds of lamellae, that spread out and create as much surface area as possible.
Gill Arch - Cartilaginous structure that provides support for the filaments.
Countercurrent exchange - blood vessels are arranged so that the blood is moving in the opposite direction from the water flowing past the gills. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain the function of the lungs and diaphragm in regard to the human respiratory system. |
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Definition
Inalation - Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract. Diaphragm is pulled lower and rib cage expands. Air is sucked into the lungs.
Exhalation - Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. Chest cavity returns to its original size. Air is forced back out to the trachea. |
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Term
| Explain respiration in birds. |
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Definition
Inhalation - Fresh, oxygen-rich air moves down trachea, inflating the posterior “waiting room” sacs, as well as the lungs. At the same time, oxygen-poor air is expelled from the lungs, inflating the anterior sacs.
Exhalation - The posterior sacs deflate, pushing oxygen-rich air into the lungs. The anterior sacs deflate, pushing oxygen-poor air out of the trachea. |
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Term
| What is partial pressure of oxygen? |
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Definition
Hemoglobin functions as if it "knows" when to bind to Oxygen and when to release it. Dependent on something called partial pressure of oxygen (Po2), the force of oxygen particles in the air pressing against the body. Can be thought of as a measure of the amount of oxygen present.
When hemoglobin encounters a high partial pressure of oxygen, such as in inhaled air in the lungs, hemoglobin gets packed with oxygen.
When hemoglobin encounters a low partial pressure of oxygen, such as in active muscle tissue in the body, hemoglobin releases oxygen. |
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Term
| Explain acclimation to low oxygen. |
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Definition
Some animals have adapted to low-oxygen environments. They produce a stickier form of hemoglobin similar to the strategy used by the human fetus, that can obtain a full complement of oxygen at low partial pressure of oxygen.
Humans cannot produce a stickier hemoglobin. Instead, physiological changes must occur.
Increased red blood cell production making more hemoglobin available for oxygen transport.
Increased blood capillary volume - increases volume exchange between blood and tissue
Increased number of mitochondria for more efficient ATP production.
Increased levels of DPG (diphosphoglyceric acid) reduce stickiness of hemoglobin so it releases more oxygen that it carries. |
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Term
| What are the 3 types of diets, and what type of teeth is unique to each? |
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Definition
Carnivore - Animal that consumes only other animals. Has incisors, canines, premolars, and molars.
Herbivore - Animal that consumes only plants. Teeth are primarily premolars and molars.
Omnivore - Animals that consume both plants and animals. Have sharp incisors, canines, and premolars and molars. |
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Term
| Define and/or explain calorie vs. kilacalorie. |
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Definition
Calorie - the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.
Kilocalorie - 1000 calories. In human consumption, the term "calorie" actually refers to a kilocalorie (kcal). If a pack of cookies says it provides 100 calories, it actually provides 100 kilocalories or 100,000 calories. |
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Term
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Definition
| BMR - Basal Metabolic Rate - the minimum amount of calories needed to run the body for a day without moving. |
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Term
| Explain energy expenditure. |
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Definition
| Energy expenditure = BMR + energy required for all activity. You generally need 50% to 100% more kilocalories per day than BMR alone. |
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Term
| List the 6 essential nutrients covered in class. Explain why these are important. |
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Definition
Water - Water constitutes 60-65% of the body’s weight, and, unlike food calories, none of this is in storage. All water is part of the intracellular, extracellular, or interstitial fluids. In general, a loss of 25% of the body’s water will result in death.
Proteins - Besides serving as building materials, proteins can be broken down to release energy or stored as fat.
Carbohydrates - the primary for ATP production. The fuel on which animal bodies run.
Lipids - Primary energy storage form, but also used for ATP production.
Vitamins - essential nutrients required by body in small amounts for enzymes and other molecules to function.
Minerals - inorganic chemical elements required by the body. |
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Term
| List the organs of the digestive system. |
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Definition
| Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine, Colon |
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Term
| Explain the exact function of the digestive system. |
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Definition
| Ingestion < Digestion < Absorption < Elimination |
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Term
| Define and/or explain peristalsis. |
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Definition
| Successive waves of involuntary contraction passing along the walls of a hollow muscular structure (as the esophagus or intestine) and forcing the contents onward |
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