Answer: 90%

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.457

Definition: The percentage of known words in a piece of discourse.

AKA: "text coverage"

Importance: it is an essential measure that provides estimates of the vocabulary size needed for comprehension of written or spoken texts.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.457

Answer: 95%

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.459

Answer: 98% in a fiction text.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.459

Definition: a point where adequate comprehension of written texts can be achieved.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.459

Answer: 8 - 9,000 word families

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.459

Answer: reading and writing abilities.

Research suggests that a reader relies more on linguistic information from the text whereas a listener relies more on top down processes.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.461

• elision
• reduction
• assimilation
• cliticization
• use of L1 phonotactic conventions

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.462

• prosody (i.e. stress and intonation)
• non-verbal information
• gestures and facial expression
• oral input is often less dense, is repetitive/redundant, and uses fillers and interactice markers

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.462

Van Zeeland & Schmitt (2013) employed:

a) non-words

b) real words

c) foreign words

to achieve various levels of lexical coverage?

Answer: a) non-words

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.463

True.

However other factors also need to be explored: discourse type, type of comprehension required, and individual differences -- all of these factors impact what vocab coverage amount would be required for comprehension.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.477

In Van Zeeland & Schmitt (2013), four texts were spoken out loud using 100%, 98%, 95%, and 90% lexical coverage. What vocabulary level were the words in the text?

a) within the 1K

b) within the 1K + proper nouns

c) within the 2K

d) within the 2K + proper nouns

Answer: c) within the 2K

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.466

Answer: False.

All non-words conformed to the phonologic and orthographic constraints of English and also sounded like the word class they replaced, so that participants would know what part of speech the non-word belonged to (e.g. splacked = panicked).

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.466

Answer: True.

100% text coverage led to the best listening comprehension, then 98%; however, there was no difference between 95% and 90% text coverage.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.469

This answered research question #1: What is the relationship between lexical coverage and listening comprehension among both native and non-native speakers of English?

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.464

Answer: True.

100% text coverage led to the best listening comprehension (mean = 9.62%), then 98% (mean=8.22%); however, there was no significant difference between 95% and 90% text coverage.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.470-471

This answered research question #1: What is the relationship between lexical coverage and listening comprehension among both native and non-native speakers of English?

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.464

Answer: 95% - if the goal is not "full" comprehension, but rather "good" comprehension is desired.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.474-475

Answer: 2-3,000 word families.

Adolphs & Schmitt (2003) calculated that 750 word families (app. 1,500 words) was necessary to reach 90% coverage of the CANCODE.

Nation (2006) calculated that it would take a little more than 2,000 word families for the WCSE.

Note that Nation (2006) states that 6-7,000 word families is required to achieve 98% coverage.

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.474-475

In Van Zeeland & Schmitt (2013), one acknowledged weakness of the study was:

Choose any of the following:

-Use of the written pre-test: orthographic knowledge does not necessarily entail phonologic word knowledge; therefore, a spoken pre-test would have been better.

-The post-treatment comprehension question may have cued participants' listening processes and consequently helped them answer the questions correctly.

-The informal manner of speaking used in the treatment has been found to be most comprehensible to listeners; therefore, other genres (i.e. formal academic lectures) could have led to lower comprehension results.

-Listening comprehension involves many skills that were not pre-tested for.  (e.g. inferencing and interpreting)

Van Zeeland & Schmitt, 2013, p.475-477

False.

Very few studies within SLA (second language acquisition) research have attempted to investigate the link between lexical knowledge (or lexical competence) and real-time spoken fluency.

Hilton, 2008, p.153

 False.

• lower-order processes = lexical selection, morpho-syntactic, and phonological encoding + articulatory routines --> they are highly automated in our L1 and consume little of our attentional resources

• higher-order processes = conceptual and discursive planning which are meaning-related processes

Hilton, 2008, p.153

According to Hilton (2008), which of the following definition(s) is the most significant indicator of "L2 fluency":

a) mean length run (MLR) - the average number of words produced between two pauses

b) mean length utterance (MLU) - measured in morphemes or words

c) mean length of hesitation

d) rate of error - number of errors produced per thousand words, for example

e) speech rate - expressed words per minute

a) mean length run (MLR) - the average number of words produced between two pauses

 MLR is defined as "the average number of words produced by the speakers between two pauses"

Hilton, 2008, p. 154

According to Hilton (2008), "clinical disfluency" in the L1 is categorized as a speech rate of:

a) less than 25 words/per minute

b) less than 50 words/per minute

c) less than 75 words/per minute

d) less than 100 words/per minute

b) less than 50 words/per minute

Psycholinguistic research has established that native speakers produce 130-200 words/per minute (2-3 words/per second) and about 1/3 of production is spent pausing.

Hilton, 2008, p.154

Choose one:

• to give the speaker time to organize his/her thoughts
• to give the listener time to process the incoming speech

Hilton, 2008, p.154

Speech production is considered to have stopped when a hesitation exceeds three seconds.

• In interactive communication, once a pause exceeds two seconds, the conversation partner will intervene (i.e. the interlocutor's "turn" is lost).

Hilton, 2008, p.154

TRUE/FALSE: Based on Hilton's (2008) findings, there was no correlation between language knowledge and spoken fluency.

Answer: False.

There was a positive correlation between language knowledge and spoken fluency.

• Vocabulary knowledge correlates positively with speech rate, as measured by words/per minute: the greater the vocab knowledge, the more fluent the speech.

Hilton, 2008, p.156

Answer: True.

Grammatical knowledge correlates negatively with error rate; the more grammar you know, the less likely you are to make morpho-syntactic errors.

Hilton, 2008, p.156

 Hilton (2008) used eight perfomance measures to test L2 fluency, they are listed below.

Identify TWO measures that constitute a positive fluency indicator and TWO measures that constitute a negative fluency indicator:

1. Mean length utterance
2. Words per minute
3. Mean length run (in words)
4. % speaking time in hesitation
5. Mean length of hesitation
6. Rate of hesitation
7. Rate of retracing
8. Rate of error

1. Mean length utterance - positive fluency indicator
2. Words per minute - positive fluency indicator
3. Mean length run (in wds) - positive fluency indicator
4. % speaking time in hesitation - negative fluency indicator
5. Mean length of hesitation - negative fluency indicator
6. Rate of hesitation - negative fluency indicator
7. Rate of retracing - negative fluency indicator
8. Rate of error - negative fluency indicator

Hilton, 2008, p.157

b) just over than 50 words/per minute -- well over half of the production time of learners was spent in hesitation, with pauses interrupting the speech stream every 2 words or so.

Hilton, 2008, p.157

Answer: False.

The most fluent L2 speakers  attain temporal values and wider production characteristics of native speech.

Hilton, 2008, p.157

Based on Hilton's (2008) data, the pause location of disfluent L2 speakers tended to be:

a) between utterances

b) between clauses

c) within a clause

c) within a clause; 52% of hesitations were situated within a clause, which is characteristic of L2 production and particularly of disfluent speech.

Hilton, 2008, p. 158

According to Hilton (2008), the pause location of native speakers tended to be:

a) between utterances

b) between clauses

c) within a clause

a) between utterances

b) between clauses

Therefore, between ideas or coherent syntactic units; only 28% of the time was it within a clause.

L1 research has traditionally considered utterance boundary pauses as discourse-planning pauses and clause boundary pauses as discursive and linguistic encoding processes.

Hilton, 2008, p.158-159

Based on Hilton's (2008) findings, hesitations in L2 production that resulted in fluency breakdowns within a clause were caused mostly by:

a) phonological error (i.e. pronunciation problems)

b) lexical search

c) morphological error (i.e. agreement problems)

d) lexical retrieval

e) L1 interference

d) lexical retrieval -- 78% of the disfluent clause-internal pauses in the learner corpus revealed problems with lexical retrieval.

Hilton, 2008, p.159

According to Meara (1996, 1999), as cited in Hilton (2008), lexical competence is defined as: the quantity and structure of knowledge learners have of their L2 lexicon and their capacity to use these words in ______ language processing.

a) pre-planned

b) receptive

b) productive

d) on-line

Answer: d) on-line

Hilton, 2008, p.160

Hilton (2008) states that disfluent learners appear to be lacking not only in vocabulary but also in ______, which  they can employ  to compensate for missing lexical items:

a) prosodic knowledge

b) pragmatic know-how

c) strategies

d) metalinguistic skills

c) strategies; propents of a strategy-based approach to L2 skills work argue that the best solution for the problem of missing lexical knowledge is teaching Ss useful compensation strategies.

Compension strategies can be helpful to L2 learners, but they cannot replace a solid L2 mental lexicon.

Hilton, 2008, p.160-161

Which of the following statement(s) by Hilton (2008) are FALSE:

• there is no memorization without repetition
• much of language (esp. L1) is declarative information
• fluency can be described as the control of mostly automatic processes by selective attention
• declarative information is not always efficiently stored in long-term memory
• lexical knowledge is the greatest impediment to spoken L2 fluency

False: declarative information is efficiently stored in long-term memory

Hilton, 2008, p.162