• President Wilson’s basis for lasting peace after WWI

• Took a progressive approach to reshaping the postwar world

• Called for free navigation of the seas

• To decrease role of Army
• To prevent the role of standing armies so countries did not have to worry about attack
• Prohibit "secret treaties" so everything was out in the open
• Open trade
  
  • Idea of the League of Nations; tried to influence the Treaty of Versailles—only point taken was League of Nations
• Comparable to Lincoln's Plan for Peace (10% Plan)

• Created during a time when the US was in transition between isolationism and internationalism
• Devised by American Sec. of State, Frank Kellogg, as a low-cost solution to a European problem.
• Rather than signing an agreement with France to guarantee their territorial integrity, Kellogg persuaded the French foreign minister to support a broader pact condemning militarism.
• "Condemn recourse to war for the solution of international controversies, and renounce it as an instrument of national policy". 
• Signed by 14 Nations in 1928, later signed by 50 other nations.
• Supported by US peace groups, but critics pointed out that it lacked mechanisms for enforcement.

• Congress calls businessmen who made arms & discuss the profits they made during WWI.
• Investigated on whether they & the banks who loaned millions to the Allie, influenced America's decision to declare war.
• Nye's comittee concluded that war profiteers, "merchants of death" had maneuvered the nation into WWI for financial gain.
• However, failed to prove this charge.

• A student formed group that began at Princeton University as a joke.
• satirical response to the early payment of bonuses to WWI veterans
• they "demanded" that since the country will probably be at war sometime within the next 30 years, and they will probably be fighting in it, that they should receive their early payments.
• They were against Roosevelt's excessive spending, and against war itself
• Followed by thousands of college students who had become paid members of this society

• After the attack on Pearl Harbor, people in California had feared attacks, spies, and sabotage & Cali's long history of racial antagonism toward Asian immigrants came into play.
• Roosevelt responded by issuing Executive Order 9066 that gave teh War Dept. the authority to evacuate Japanese Americans from the west coast & relocate them in camps for the rest of the war.
• There was no evidence that these citizens had done anything or anything that proved them to be disloyal.  However, General DeWitt said "A Jap's a Jap"
• More than 2/3 were native born in America.  They only had a few days to dispose of their property, businesses liquidated overnight, & houses sold for a fraction of their value.
• Some were evenutally let out of camps to work for farming (since their was a shortage), continue their college educations, & surprisingly enlistment in armed services.

• Roosevelt, Churchhill, and Stalin met in February 1945 at Yalta.
• Roosevelt was focused on maintaining Allied unity, which he saw as the key to postwar peace. 
• Roosevelt wanted Poland & neighboring countries to have democratic elections, but Stalin just said they would do this at a later time.
• The three leaders agreed to divide Germany into four administrative zones, each controlled by one of the four powers (US, UK, French, Soviet Union) and also partitioned the capital, Berlin (which laid in the middle of the Soviet Zone) among the four powers.
• UN created by the Big three to replace the League of Nations. Had a security council composed of US, UK, France, China, and Soviet Union--these would have veto power over decisions of the General Assembly, where all nations would eb represented
• Roosevelt died soon after, on April 12, 1945

• Introduced by George Kennan when he found that Soviets want expansion in Europe
• US wanted to keep the Soviets within their boundaries because they did not want communism to be spread to any more countries. 
• The Truman Doctrine further supported this by providing support to non-Communist countries, resisting Communist expansion.

• 1947--Kennan's team of advisors came up with the plan to give economic aid to Western European struggling countries (16 countries) to rebuild industrial bases, giving them the basis to rebuild their economy which helped with containment.
• Over 4 years, the US contributed $13 billion to the succesful recovery effort
• US also reaped benefts of a stronger market for American goods; US emerges as the world's economic leader

• Lasted three years (1950-1953) & costed US troops 36,000 lives.  South & North Korean deaths were over 900,000. 
• On June 25, 1950, the North Koreans launched a surprise attack across the 38th parallel. Truman immediately asked the UN Security Council to authorize a "police action" against the invaders.  Soviet was boycotting the UN for the exclusion of China from the group, so they could not protest Truman's request.  So this "peacekeeping force" called for US troops in South Korea.
• There were several attacks & counterattacks, but the parallel was pushed back to the 38th parallel & Truman & his adivsors decided to work for a negotiated peace. MacArthur disagreed with this, and wanted complete victory, he was fired for insubordination.  The war dragged on for two more years after his dismissal until an armstice was signed in 53. The division remained at the 38th parallel.
• It was the first effect of the expansion of Communism, and after which led Truman to make containment of Communism America's guiding principle across the Third World.

• First televised Presidential Debates
• Significant because Kennedy was much more physically appealing to the people who had watched the debates--younger & more attractive.  Nixon had been sick & refused to wear makeup, which did not make him look as good on tv. 
• There were polls that were taken by citizens who had just voted, asking whether or not they had watched the televised presidential debates. Most of the ones who had seen it had voted for Kennedy.

• At the Moscow Fair in 1959, the US put on display the tecnological marvels of American Home life
• Nixon and Soviet Prime Minister Khrushchev got into a heated debate over the relative merits of their rival systems. It turned into a democracy over communism debate, Nixon emphasized the importance of consumer goods in a democratic nation.

• An innovative contractor, William Levitt, revolutionized the suburban housing market in Long Island by applying mass production techniques.  This made for much faster production at relatively low prices.
• at about $8,000 for a house, these were still too much for young families to purchase at once. However, the Federal Housing Administration had come through to insure 30 year mortgages after the war with as little as 5% down and an interest of 2-3%.  The veterans administration had allowed ex-GI's to just put $1 down.
• These were "restrictive covenants" however that discriminated against any other race besides caucasions & prohibited from living in these neighborhoods

• "Gotta Make Up for Lost Time" As men were returning home from WWII,  everyone began having babies.
• It was practically the responsibility of a citizen to have two or more children.
• More babies were born between 1948 and 1953 than the previous 30 years.
• Presents a problem as these people are reaching retirement age, and Generation X will not be able to financially support all of their benefits such as social security, healthcare costs, etc.

• VP Johnson wants to continue JFK's work after he was assassinated.
• Declare a war on poverty & create a 2nd new deal including: AFIX (welfare), Food Stamps, Medicare & Medicaid, Head Start, Minimum wage rose, Civil rights act, voting rights act & much more
• Johnson knew how to get legislation passed, talking to congressmen in the bathroom & getting in the senate majority leader's face.
• Poverty dropped from 20% to 13% during thewar on poverty, could be due to the economic boom or Johnson's plan

Includes:

• Medicare=meds for elderly
• Medicaid=meds for poor
• Social Security=money for elderly
• The first two programs came as part of Johnson's Great Society. Social Security came during the New Deal. They are the American version of the European welfare state.

• `On January 30,1968 when the US was "winning the war" the avietcong massively assaulted South Vietnam--striking 36 provincial capitals and 5 major cities.  They failed militarily, but the massive destructiuon and relentless changed many Amercians' opinions of the war.
• Before: 56% support; After: 41%

• Agricultural Adjustment Act
• Led by FDR, represented a new level of government involvement in the farm economy. Farmersmade up more than a quarter of the workforce.
• To solve the problem of overproduction, which resulted in low prices for farm crops, the AAA provided cash to farmers who cut production in 7 major commodities.  To pay for these subsidies, the act imposed a tax on the processors of these commodities which they in turn passed on to consumers.
• They hoped that farm prices would rise as production fell, spurring consumer purchases by farmers and assisting a general economic recovery.
• Negative impacts: large & middle sized southern farms had forced sharecropping black families off the land in order to get rid of their land to receive the subsidies.

• Stock prices were soaring during the late 20's  and people saw the rise as a good investment (instead of an inflated product) and so bought stocks that they couldn't afford on credit. 
• It took place on two days: Oct 24 & Oct 29, 1929.  When the stocks crashed, the banks demanded creditors to pay up; they couldn't, so the banks failed. 
• This didn't directly cause the great depression; the FED rapidly shrank the money supply and consumers stopped purchasing.

• Alllowed for legal segregation in every public place
• Ratified in Plessy vs. Ferguson, ruled that segregation was not discriminatory--didn't violate 14th amendment if blacks receieved accomodations equal to those of white (often not the case in the south)
• Later disapproved by Brown vs. Board of Education (1954) and dismantled during teh Civil Rights Movemtn via sit-ins, boycotts, marches, and legislation.

•  Effort in black disfranchisement
• Southern states created new restrictions on voting (literacy tests), but exempted those whose ancestors (grandfathers) who had the right to vote before the Civil War. The existence of slaves prior to the Civil War effectively excluded African Americans while allowing poor and illiterate whites to vote.
• The 15th amendment later gauranteed blacks the right to vote.

• This was a measure used to curb many poor black & white citizens from voting; you had to pay to vote and if you were poor you'd rather spend money on necessities.
• It had been used since the Reconstruction era as a method of disenfranchisement.
• The 24th amendment (part of Johnson's Great Society) outlawed poll taxes in 1964

• Formerly used as means of disenfranchisement for the uneducated, especially blacks.
• Outlawed by the Voting Rights Act in 1965.  Without these tests or poll taxes, the precentage of blacks registered to vote boomed in the late 60s early 70s

• African Americans move from the rural South to the cities of the North.  Over 40,000 left southern farms to live in the industrial heartland.
• Why? The better conditions in the North & more opportunities for advancement.  African Americans were receiving higher wages while still facing discrimination, but they escaped the opressive racism of the South & the low pay.
• During the war, northern factories recruited AA.  MOre than 400,000 blacks moved into big cities.
• Truman's efforts were aimed at getting the blacks' votes as they began to vote in larger cities.  So he passed the Executive Order 9981 to integrate military, trying to earn their votes.

• Issued by Truman in 1948.
• Abolished formal segregation in the military based on race, religion, and national origin.  The last all-black unit was dismanteled in 1954.  This was the government's effort to lead in the civil rights inclusion movement.

• In 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sponsered the Freedom Rides on bus lines throughout the south. 
• The aim was to call attention to the blatant violation of recent Supreme Court rulings against segregation in the interstate commerce.  So the blacks & whites sat in each other's areas; they were met with violence, which was televised, which spurred national sentiment toward the cause of civil rights.
• Showed that nonviolent protest could work if it succeeded with violent white resistance.

• In Birmingham, MLK called for protests against conditions in which he called " the most segregated city in the US."
• In 1963, thousands of black demonstrators marched downtown to picket Birmingham's department stores.
• They were met by "Bull" Connor, the city's commissioner of public safety and his police, who used snarling dogs, electric cattle prods, and high-pressure fire hoses to break up the crowds.
• Television cameras captured the scene. Kennedy was outraged & decided it was time to step in. He went on television & delivered a passionate speech denouncing racism & announcing a new civil rights bill.  Black leaders hailed the speech as the "second emancipation proclamation" 

• During WWI, government & corporate recruiters drew on patriotism as they urged women to take jobs in defense industries.
• Most women were previously housewives or secretaries etc, but many abandoned these low paying "women jobs" for higher paying work in the defense industry.
• Examples: airplane riveters, ship welders, and drill-press operators.
• However, women were often sexually harrassed on the job & usually received lower wages. 
• When the men came home the nation's plants returned to peacetime operations & Rosie the Riveter was out of a job. But many married women refused to stay home, and women's participation in the labor force rebounded steadily for the rest of teh 1940's. 

• Post WWII, in the 1950's, America was in a time of prosperity. People were earning more & buying more.
• Preference for suburban living, a high valuation on consumption, & a devotion to family and domesticity.
• Consumer culture--cars, television, etc.

• Consumer staple
• In 1955 in Detroit there were 8-12 million famileies that had two cars.
• Highway system was built to allow people to live in suburbs & drive to bigger cities.
• Bartov's "Everyone has a Car" is a case where a writer from Israel states his perspective on how Americans value their vehicles he states, "Only in death is a man separated from his car & buried alone"

• In America people feared attack by the Soviets. With the threat of atomic bombs, people wanted to be "prepared" to protect themselves. This "duck & cover" taught children to do just that if there was a siren that signaled there was an atomic attack.  Although this would not actually protect the individuals that much, it made citizens feel safer to have a plan of action in case the attack did come.

• TV's dominated America's culture in the 1950's
• What they saw on TV, besides commercials, was an overwhelmingly white, suburban, middle class life. Depicted what households strived for in the 50s: father left for work, mother is a fulltime housewife tending to her children, family conflicts always resolved. Professional sports also became popular.
• Broadcasting of the war in Vietnam was something new for Americans to see. Often times affecting their views on war since most had never been able to visually see what had taken place before television.

• Outlawed literacy tests and other measures most southern states used to prevent blacks from registering to vote.
• Also the attorney general sent federal examiners to register voters in any county were less than 50% of the voting-age population was registered.
• Together, with the 24th amendment which outlawed poll taxes, it enabled millions of blacks to regester to vote for the first time since after Reconstruction

• In September 1957 nine black students attempted to enroll at the all-white central HS. The Governor called out the national guard to bar them  Then the mob took over.  Everyday the nine students had to run a gauntlet of angry whites chanting "Go back to the Jungle".  As the vicious scences were seen on television, Eisenhower acted.  He sent 1000 federal troops to LR & ordered them to protect the black students.
• Eisenhower became the first president since Reconstruction to use federal troops to enforce the rights of blacks.

• Massive Resistance
• Signed in 1956 by 101 members of Congress denounced the Brown decision as "a clear abuse of judicial power" & encouraged their constituents to defy it.
• Some whites revived the old tactics of violence & intimidation.
• They believed that state rights should conduct these affairs, but supremacy laws overrode this.  Federal Gov is more powerful. 

• Southerners resisting Brown who said you can't have white vs. black schools. 
• 500,000 southerners joined White Citizen Councils=in south, if they support civil rights then they would ecomically hurt them
• Ex: LR Central, KKK, etc.

• During the summer when American naval forces were conducting reconnaissace missions off the North Vietnamese coast, Johnson got reports that North Vietnamese torpedo boats had fired on the destroyer Maddox in international waters. 
• In the first attack, the damage inflicted was limited to a single bullet hole; a second attack later proved to be only a misread on radar sightings. This led for Johnson to request a call for arms. Only two senators opposed in the house & the senate, so Johnson was handed a mandate to conduct operations in Vietnam as he saw fit.

• No group was more visible in antiwar protests than college students.
• Galvanized by the struggle for racial justice, white students began to question US foreign & Domestic policy & middle-class conformity.
• wanted to look at politics in a different way from their parents

• in June 1962, 40 students from big ten & ivy league universities met in Port Huron to found "Students for a Democratic Society" which expressed there disillusionment with the consumer culture and the gulf between rich & poor. These students rejected the Cold War foreign policy, including the Vietnam conflict.
• Also referred to as the "New Left" to distinguish themselves from the "Old Left"--Communists and Socialists of the 30's.
• They adopted the activist tactics pioneered by the civil rights movement & turned to grassroots organizing in cities and on college campuses.

• Nixon wanted to be re-elected & formed a committee to break into the Democratic Headquarters to find what he would be running against.  They got caught & Nixon had kept some tapes in his office.  His secretary had "accidently" deleted 18 important minutes on the tape.
• Nixon resigned instead of facing impeachment.
• This built cynicism in American people; can't trust the president or goverment to tell the truth

• This case involved a black pupil in Kansas who had been forced to attend a distant segregated school rather than the nearby white elementary school.
• The NAACP chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall, argued that such segregation was unconstitutional because it denied Brown teh "equal protection of the laws" guaranteed by the 14 Amendment.
• In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court agreed, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine.
• This led to massive resistance & the Southern Manifesto of angry southerners