Term
| 3 types of theoretical approaches to urban politics and the poor |
|
Definition
1) Role of politics in shaping the prospects for the poor
2) Role of economy for poor
3) problem-centered lens, considering how multiple macro and micro-level political, economic and social forces simultaneously produce a particular kind of urban problem |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Strategy through which low-income people and their advocates pursue policy changes and influence at City Hall. Under a globalised and restructured economy, community-based groups advocating for poor more likely to engage in living wage campaigns, and turn to social service provision. As local elite power structures become more fragmented, organisers face challenge of finding targets with power to make change, increasing fragmentation of civic sector also makes mobilisation and coalition building more difficult. small victories do improve daily lives of disadvantagd, these changes do not add up to broad progressive agendas in city government, ot to real inclusion of poor people's advocates in local power structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Most pessimistic prospects of poor from elite theories and related political economy and Marxist approaches. Asserts that business-dominated local elite exercises power to advance its interests, at the expense of the poor. This challenges ideology of value-free development (that growth is good for all), asserting low income bear the costs of growth. Study local growth machines analysing which elite actors take part and how their actions privilege the exchange values of land rather than the use values held by lower income renters. Depit a city where poor may resist displacement, but ultimately are likely to fail and to be pushed from neighborhood to neighborhood as the growth machine expands its reach, discovering new sites in cities and abandoning others. |
|
|
Term
| social exclusion approach |
|
Definition
| Articulate an overarching goal of policy (to achieve social inclusion). dominated urban policy in 1990s Europe. Problem-centered approach. Conceptualizes particular problem with some of the people in cities. EU programs to reduce social exclusion. Relationship between neighborhood conditions and individual indicators of social exclusion. EU study- neighborhood resources made the most difference for populations most marginalised by the economy or the welfare state. anti-exclusion programs include efforts to integrate policy delivery, to direct intensive services to particular targeted neighborhoods, programs focused on employment or housing, and policies directed at particular groups of excluded people. The policy emphasis on social exclusion increasingly has shifted to focus on citizenship, with government officials and researchers articulating an ideal of inclusion and participation in policy creation and implementation. Critics, note emphasis on neoliberalism which emphasizes equal opportunities rather than equal outcomes as well as looking at class but overlooking others (gender and race), and critiques of local partnership efforts. The process must be multidimensional |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Well developed in study of international relations and of public policy and especially useful in examining inequalities and power disparities in political life, but they are used infrequently to study urban politics. It sees individuals and groups as both shaping, and being shaped by, the world around them; structure and agency are mutually constitutive. They interpret world around them and act according to interpretations, leading them to assert interpretations shape social reality. Institutions, standard practices, policies, identities and relationships emerge from this. Reflect critically on the larger system in which local politics and policy making processes occur, and on the dominant ideas that these systems and their institutions embody. Analyse paradigms guiding action in cities, how they emerge, how they manifest, and who contests them and with what ideas and resources. Also map major grouping of identitites and interests in cities, linking these to nested contexts and considering how actorss might prompt change. Deeply contextual. It interrogates dominant paradigms such as neoliberalism and social exclusion. |
|
|
Term
| cultural explanation of poverty |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structural explanation of poverty |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| non-profits and community based organizations and the poor |
|
Definition
| Important for representing interests of poor, responding to their needs through policy development and delivery, and in acting to build more egaltarian and democratic cities. Regime theory- non profits are critical members of governing regime if it is to address needs of poor. Without non-profit sector, regime unlikely to respond to poor. Non-profits activate low-income people to participate in advocacy campaigns, play a role in shaping policy agendas and develop innovative policy solutions of their own. Economic- key vehicles in rearranging capital relations. Directly related to democratic practice in cities, even when failing, they build organisational strength and political connections |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1960s, rapidly emerging geography of extreme segregation that separated whites in suburbs from blacks in metropolitan center. Cultural stereotypes of black ghetto and american dream of homeownership and upward mobility. racial segregation transcendent issue. 1970s sensationalist reporting of black ghettos furthered segregation. Mid 1980s immigrants began bypassing cities and moving directly to suburbs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Exodus of blacks from South 1910-30s. one of the largest and most rapid internal movements of people in history. 1 million blacks moved, 1/10 of all blacks living in South moved to cities in North and Midwest. Black population living outside South shot up by 134%. Almost all to urban areas hard to adjust to. North discrimination could be just as bad. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1980s, sociologist William Julius Wilson used this term to refer to people who were concentrated in low-income areas and who were chronically out of work and out of the social mainstream. Being poor, living in inner city, chronically unemployed, on welfare, homeless, rising in single parent family, criminal record, drug use. Term normally used to refer to AFrican American exclusively. Became way to speak about race without directly referring to it. |
|
|
Term
| A Automobile Suburbs (1918-1945) |
|
Definition
| Major cities having major growth in cities but even more so in suburbs. Rate of growth high, but original population base tiny. Almost everything concentrated close to downtown, near rail and water. People began commuting to downtown. Following the Ford assembly line, everyone getting cars. Road construction lagged behind. Car changed everything. Great Depression hit suburbs hard b/c upper and middle class people could not buy a new home. |
|
|
Term
| The Bedroom Suburbs (1946-1970s) |
|
Definition
| GIs returning from War had kids like crazy. housing industry responded and almost all construction in suburbs. With mass-production methods and marketing techniques, big development companies began to dominate the industry. Suburban development now embracing working class families as well. homeownership from 44% in 1940 to 63% in 1970. 1950s suburb grew 49% while central cities grew 11%. many cities slipped into decline. mostly marketed to white middle class families. cookie cutter houses. Now suburbanization seen in racial terms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ethnic enclaves appearing elsewhere are now popping up in unlikely places for newer immigrants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| laws of 1920s-60s had climate of xenophobic fear and resentment. National Origins Immigration Act 1924 established annual quota of 2% of 1890 population with goal of reducing immigration to all but northern europeans. This changed with 1965 Hart-Cellar Act |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Adverse economic conditions in Mexico and poverty and political repression in other countries pushed most of the Hispanic immigrants northward. Economic opportunity in the United STates exerted the necessary pull. US minimum wage 6X wage in Mexico in 1990. |
|
|
Term
| cities in the US Federal System |
|
Definition
| By not providing capital resources to subnational governments from central government, US stands apart. Most cities outside US do not have to rely on private lenders to raise money for capital projects, those are generally financed by national governments. At top, federal enjoy greatest ability to impose taxes and go into debt, making states and local implement policies that are costly. Cities are highest employers though |
|
|
Term
| American Recovery and Reinvestment Act |
|
Definition
| Cities are allowed to impose property taxes, with some allowing taxes on retail and 8% of cities able to impose income tax |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Less popular than property taxes and not wildly used.Flat rate payroll tax adopted to relieve financial pressures during Great Depression. advantage of income tax is it enables cities to tax nonresident commuters. Cities want to use it but there is fear that it makes cities less competitive within metropolitan regions |
|
|
Term
| intergovernmental transfers |
|
Definition
| cities rely on continous flow of intergovernmental revenues, a small amount from federal government, but most is passed through states or allocated by the states for particular functions, especially important are road construction and maintenence, corrections, and public safety. Transfers were high until REagan when it dropped. b/c they stir resentment among residents and businesses, property taxes have steadily fallen as proportion of revenues collected by cities, instead imposing tax on personal property, assets other than real estate and improvements |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| disadvantage is high proportion of property is tax-exempt. 1/3 of all real property is subject to some kind of exemption. lowering of elderly rates and incentives for businesses to stay. burden of tax exempt falls most heavily on cities least able to afford it b/c central cities have twice as much exempt property as suburbs |
|
|
Term
| California Proposition 13 |
|
Definition
| Law enacted to limit property tax rates or spending by local government. Passed in June 1978 along with 16 other states with similar bills. Politically unable to raise property taxes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tax of choice since 1970s. 58% of cities allow cities to impose sales tax. useful because they are highly flexible. substantial portion of tax payed by nonresidents. especially important for cities with retailing centers. Reliance can be hazordous, b/c stores that enter can leave just as easily and the recession can hurt numbers of heavily dependent |
|
|
Term
| Tax Anticipation Notes (TANs) |
|
Definition
| Short term debt security to finance immediate projects that will be paid with future tax revenues. helps to smooth out the ups and downs of revenue cycles. type of municipal bond so interest earned from TANs is generally tax exempt for investors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| long term bonds to pay for capital improvements such as schools, highways, bridges, and hospitals which will benefit city residents over a long period. To compete in market for municipal bonds, must keep credit rating as high as possible. B/c competittiveness, must pursue policies that promote local economic growth. For cities, ability to generate enough revenue to provide adequate services and make the payments on debt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| These bonds pledge the full faith and credit of city's taxing powers to pay off the bonds, generally requiring approval of voters of representative body, used to build public infastructure such as bridges and parks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| revenue bonds paid off by anticipated future revenues from facilities that are constructed, usually issued by public authorities established by state enabling legislation. When revenues not sufficient to pay bond premiums, local governments must make up the difference. cases of this can be convention centers or sports stadiums, aquariums, museums. These do not require public referendum. Now a majority of bonds. Right when revenues falling, interest rates they paid on bonds soared b/cc they were now considered risky by underwriters |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bond market decides cost of borrowing. Represents relative credit quality of issuing municipality and determines rate of interest city must pay. When bond rating lowered due to fiscal problems, bond may be more difficult to sell |
|
|
Term
| special purpose authorities |
|
Definition
| Biggest development and infastructure projects not financed directly by municipalities, but by independent special purpose authorities that issue revenue bonds. Look to investors to help. rose up to administer many tourism/entertainment complexes in cities. Convention centers, festival malls, sports, revitalizing neighborhoods |
|
|
Term
| Tax Increment Financing TIF |
|
Definition
| 1980s # of tax increment finance districts multiplied. TIFs generate their revenues by marketing bonds to investors based on the taxes that are expected to be collected when a parcel of land is redeveloped. Might condemn houses in order to make a mall which would be expected to generate sales tax revenue. Revenue projections provide basis for bond issue. used to offset property tax breaks for new development |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| businesses closed their doors, older buildings fell into disrepair and decay. Laid bare a truth mostly escaped notice during prosperous 1920s. MEtropolitan areas, spatial restructuring taking place for long time. Manufacturing slow exodus to suburbs, sped up by emerging network of highways and truck transportation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inner city economies crashed in the 1970s. Next two decades deindustrialization referring to rapid restructuring of economies in all of advanced nations. Technological advances in production processes, such as robots, made it possible to produce goods with fewer workers. Job rate in manufacturing stable despite growth. Also many manufacturing leaving the US entirely. Many central cities with unemployment as high as 20% |
|
|
Term
| Business Improvement District (BID) |
|
Definition
| due to lowering in property taxes, as a way of improving enviornment for investment. Able to raise large amounts of capital by selling tax free revenue bonds to investors. bonds paid off by increased volume of taxes expected from future development |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Movement to downtowns driven by these groups. young urban professionals. often displacing poorer residents. Stratified nature of upper tier service employment and lower tier. Affluent live in downtown areas with high property values that have been gentrifyed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| singles with joint living arrangement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| new developments in bad parts of town part of urban redevelopment. odd assortment of affluent yuppies and artists who thrive on tolerance and diversity. presence of historic and architecturally significant buildings and their location near the central business district and other amenities such as arts |
|
|
Term
| convention center development |
|
Definition
| Facilities expensive to operate and almost always lost money, but had effect of attracting, and even helping to create array of traveling shows and exhibitions. Benefits soon recognized by civic boosters who began pushing for them. 1980s was arms race for convention center due to air travel and great job specialization. Rising costs have not deterred cities from investing in bigger and more elaborate facilities |
|
|
Term
| sport stadium development |
|
Definition
| Because teams sometimes move or threaten to, team owners usually able to pursuade cities to meet their demands. important help of regional economy. More of a question of helping the cities image than anything. Moves occurring quite often since 1960s. almost all lose money |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| weapon for cities in shopping and tourism. heavily subsidize construction of downtown malls, |
|
|
Term
| casino gaming development |
|
Definition
| in last two decades, casinos have spread like wildfire in major cities. major source of revenue for Indian tribes. Religious opposition and ties to organized crime run opposition. Since 90s, gambling in US cities almost full stop. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tourism does not pay for itself but civic boosters don't care. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Community Development Corporations (CDCs) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| less concerned about CBDs than about slum residents. Leaders convinced that encroaching slums responsible for steady decline in property values and retail activity in downtown areas. Low income housing was sacrificed to commercial development. attempts for low housing incited protests. redevelopment got federal funds, and advanced politcal careers and image of city. new covergence of power of corporate executives, real estate, small business owners, newspapers, and construction trades |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Areas generally the oldest in cities easily designated as officially blighted by local urban renewal authority, the first step in process that led to condemning and clearing property. need for political visibility and campaign contributions from wealthy donors ensured that elected officials would favor downtown sites |
|
|
Term
| Federal Housing Authority (FHA) |
|
Definition
| federally funded program to accelterate suburban development. used loans established by National Housing Act of 1934. insured individual accounts. Section 203 home mortgage insurance program. purpose to finance acquisition of proposed, under construction or existing one to four family units. made getting house easier. kept people in major cities. virtually all new homes in suburbs |
|
|
Term
| Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944 (GI Bill) |
|
Definition
| federally funded program accelerating suburban development. |
|
|
Term
| Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 |
|
Definition
| Congress outlawed racial discrimination in all forms of housing. opened suburban housing market to blacks growing 50%. still after move, they were segregated due to older suburbs having same problems as central city including lower tax base, higher debts, poorer municipal services and high population densities |
|
|
Term
| The Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974 |
|
Definition
| Federal government to eliminate housing discrimination intended to ensure that blacks receive equal consideration for home loans and that banks stop redlining areas where blacks lived. Still blacks more likely to be turned down for a mortgage. |
|
|
Term
| National Defense Highway Act of 1956 |
|
Definition
| justified on military grounds, to aid movement of troops and supplies and to help evacuate American cities in case of nuclear attack. Main rationale was that freeways would stimulate economy linking all cities. Exactly waht ended up happening. |
|
|
Term
| Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Community Development Black Grant (CDBG) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Urban Development Action Grants (UDAG) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| suburbs that have grown at least double digit rates for every decade since 1970 reaching a population of at least 100,000 by census of 2000. 54 cities met this standard with 12 having more than 200,000. They lack physical characteristics and identity that make people notice that they have their own distinctive characteristic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used to refer to low-density residential development at periphery or urban areas. AS they move further out, generally choose lower density suburbs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| directed mainly at more modest efforts to bring about inter local agreements, share tax burdens, and achieve level of cooperation in providing services as a way of reducing extreme inequalities in local governments. decry fragmentation of urban regions, they rarely propose metro government is answer. main conviction that flight creates blight |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| . described as policies he proposed aimed at building public infastructure in designated growth areas while at same time protecting other areas from development. fair land use and enviornmental regulations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Congress for New Urbanism (CNU) |
|
Definition
| views divestment in central cities, spread of placeless sprawl, increasing sepration of race and income, enviornmetntal detriottion, loss of agricultural lands and wildernesss and erosion of society's built heritage as one interrelated community building challenge. physical design of urban space |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long Island into biggest private housing project in American history with 82,000 residents. had other mandatory things |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Supreme Court ruled that racially restrictivecovenants violated 14th amendment's guarentee of equal protection of law. suburbs didn't open up until 1968 housing act |
|
|
Term
| Common-Interest Development (CID) |
|
Definition
| used to preserve the social class uniformity of residential developmets. When homebuyers purchase hom in CID, automatically agree to list of restrictions on use of property and costs, homeowners association |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| community of homeowners governed by homeowners association, responsible for enforcing long list of covenants, contracts and restrictions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is Detroit/Flint an example of a post-industrial city? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What did the City of Flint do to promote economic development? Did it work? Why? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What would a Post-Industrial economic development plan look like in Flint/Detroit? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What would a Post-Modern economic development plan look like in Flint/Detroit? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What would a pluralist economic development plan look like in Flint/Detroit? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What would a power elite economic development plan look like in Flint/Detroit? |
|
Definition
|
|
