Term
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Definition
- descent with modification
- accumulation of changes in the heritable characteristics of a population
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
- the study of fossils - developed by Georges Cuvier |
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Term
|
Definition
- Lyell's principle - states that the mechanism of change are constant over time |
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Term
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Definition
- hypothesized that species evolve through the use and disuse of body parts and the inheritance of acquired characteristics - the mechanisms he proposed are unsupported by evidence |
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Term
|
Definition
- traveled on the Beagle - where he collected specimen of South American plants and animals; Galapagos Islands |
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Term
|
Definition
- the environment and the origin of new species as closely related processes |
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Term
| Darwin developed 2 main ideas |
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Definition
- Descent with modification explains life's unity and diversity - Natural Selection is a cause of adaptive evolution |
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Term
| Descent with Modification |
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Definition
| - refers to the view that all organisms are related through descent form an ancestor that lived in the remote past |
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Term
|
Definition
| - the selecting breeding of domesticated plants and animals to encourage the occurrence of desirable traits |
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Term
|
Definition
- members of a population often vary greatly in their traits - traits are inherited form parents to offspring - all species are capable of producing more offspring than then enviromentnt can support - owing to a lack of food or other resources, many of these offspring do not survive |
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Term
|
Definition
- individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environments tend to leave more offspring than other individuals - this unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations |
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Term
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Definition
| - noted the potential for human production to increase faster than the food supplies and other resources |
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Term
| Individuals with certain heritable characteristics |
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Definition
- survive & reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals
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Term
| 2 Examples provide evidence for natural selection |
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Definition
- the effect of differential predation of guppy population - the evolution of drug resistant HIV |
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Term
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Definition
| - is similarity resulting from common ancestry |
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Term
|
Definition
| - are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme present in a common ancestor |
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Term
|
Definition
| - are remnants of features that served important functions in the organism's ancestors |
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Term
|
Definition
- are hypotheses about the relationships among different groups - can be made using different data ex: anatomical and DNA sequence data |
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Term
|
Definition
- is the evolution of similar or ANALOGOUS features in distantly related groups - does not provide information about ancestry |
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Term
| Analogous traits arise when... |
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Definition
| - groups independently adapt to similar environments in similar ways |
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Term
|
Definition
| - the geographic distribution of species |
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Term
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Definition
| - referring to a species that is confined to a specific, relatively small geographic area |
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Term
|
Definition
| - the earth's continents were formally united in a single large continent but have since separated by CONTINENTAL DRIFT |
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Term
|
Definition
| - the origin of new species |
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Term
|
Definition
- must explain: - how new species originate - and how populations evolve |
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Term
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Definition
- consists of adaptations that evolve with in a population, confined to 1 gene pool
- is a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations |
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Term
|
Definition
| - refers to evolutionary change above the species level |
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Term
| Biological Species Concept |
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Definition
| - a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other populations |
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Term
|
Definition
| - is the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede 2 species from producing viable, fertile offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
| - are the offspring of crosses b/n different species |
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Term
| PREZYGOTIC BARRIERS block fertilization from occurring by: |
|
Definition
- impeding different species from attempting to mate
- preventing the successful completion of mating
- hindering fertilization if mating is successful |
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Term
|
Definition
| - 2 species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, b/c they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers |
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Term
|
Definition
| - species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, different years can not mix their gametes |
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Term
|
Definition
| - courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers |
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Term
|
Definition
| - morphological differences can prevent successful mating; parts don't fit |
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Term
|
Definition
| - sperm of 1 species may not be able to fertilize eggs of other species |
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Term
| POSTZYGOTIC BARRIERS prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult: |
|
Definition
- reduced hybrid viability - reduced hybrid fertility - hybrid breakdown |
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Term
|
Definition
| - genes of the different species may interact and impair they hybrid's development |
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Term
|
Definition
| - even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile |
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Term
|
Definition
- some first - generation hybrids are fertile BUT when they mate with another species OR with either parent species offspring of the next generation ate feeble OR sterile |
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Term
| Morphological Species Concept |
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Definition
| - defines a species by structural features |
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Term
| Morphological Species Concept applies to: |
|
Definition
- sexual species
- asexual species
BUT
- relies on subjective criteria |
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Term
| Ecological Species Concept |
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Definition
| - views a species in terms of its ecological niche |
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Term
| Ecological Species Concept applies to |
|
Definition
- sexual species - asexual species - & emphasizes the role of disruptive selection |
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Term
| Phylogenetic Species Concept |
|
Definition
| - defines a species as the smallest group of individuals on a phylogenteic tree |
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Term
| Phylogenetic Species Concept applies to: |
|
Definition
- sexual species
- asexual species
BUT
- it can be difficult to determine the degree of difference required for separate species |
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Term
| Speciation can occur in 2 ways: |
|
Definition
- allopatric speciation
- sympatric speciation |
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Term
|
Definition
- geographic isolation
- gene flow is interrupted OR reduced when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations
- geographic isolation restricts gene flow b/n population |
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Term
| Evidence of Allopatric Speciation |
|
Definition
- regions w/many geographic barriers typically have more species than do regions w/fewer barriers
- reproductive isolation b/n populations generally increase as the distance b/n them increase
- barriers to reproduction are intrinsic; separation itself is not a biological barrier |
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Term
|
Definition
- no geographic isolation
- takes place in geographically overlapping populations
- ex: - polypoidy(plant)
- habitat differentiation
- sexual selection
- can result from the appearance of new ecological niches |
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Term
|
Definition
- is the presence if extra sets if chromosomes due to accidents during a cell division
- common in plants
- ex: - important crops:
- oats
- cotton
- potatoes
- tobacco
- wheat |
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Term
|
Definition
| - is an individual with more than 2 chromosome sets, derived from 1 species |
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Term
|
Definition
| - a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species |
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Term
| Reproduction Isolation may arise by |
|
Definition
- natural selection
- genetic drift
- sexual selection |
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|
Term
| In sympatric speciation a reproductive barrier |
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Definition
| - isolates a subset of a population w/o geographic separation from the parent species |
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Term
| Sympatric Speciation can result from |
|
Definition
- polyploidy
- natural selection
- sexual selection |
|
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Term
|
Definition
- periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change
- Niles Eldredge & Stephen Jay Gould
- contrasts with a model of gradual change in a species existence |
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Term
|
Definition
- mutation and sexual reproduction produce the variation in gene pools that contributes to differences among indiciduals
- variation in individual genotype leads to variation in individual phenotype
- not all phenotypic variation is heritable
- natural selection can only act in variation with a genetic component
- discrete and quantitative characters |
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Term
|
Definition
| - can be classified in an either - or - basis |
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Term
|
Definition
| - vary along a continuum with in a poulation |
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Term
|
Definition
| - measures the average percent of loci that are in heterozygous in a population |
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Term
|
Definition
| - comparing the DNA sequences of pairs of individuals |
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Term
|
Definition
- differences b/n gene pools of separate populations or population subgroups - ex: cline |
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Term
|
Definition
| - is a graded change in a trait along a geographic axis |
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Term
|
Definition
- are changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA - only mutations in cells that produce gamates can be passed to offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
| - new genes and alleles to arise |
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Term
|
Definition
| - is a change in 1 base in a gene |
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Term
| Effects of point mutations (good) |
|
Definition
- mutations in noncoding regions of DNA are often harmless - mutations in a gene might not affect protein production b/c of redundancy in the genetic code |
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Term
| Effects of point mutation (bad) |
|
Definition
- mutations that result in a change in protein production are often harmful - mutations that result in a change in protein production can sometimes increase the fit b/n organism and environment |
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Term
|
Definition
| - that delete, disrupt, OR rearrange many loci are typically harmful |
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|
Term
| Duplication of large chromosomes segments |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Duplication of small pieces of DNA |
|
Definition
| - is sometimes less harmful and increases the genome size |
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Term
|
Definition
| - can take on new functions by further mutation |
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Term
|
Definition
- low in animals and plants - often lower in prokaryotes and higher in viruses - average is about 1 mutation in every 100,000 genes per generation |
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Term
|
Definition
- can shuffle existing alleles into new combinations - in organisms that reproduce sexually, recombination of allels is more important than mutation in poroducing the genetic differences that make adaptation possible |
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Term
|
Definition
| - is a localized group of individuals capbale of intebreeding and producing fertile offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
| - consits of all the alleles for all loci in a population |
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Term
|
Definition
| - individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hardy - Weinberg principle describes |
|
Definition
| - a population that is not evolving |
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|
Term
| Hardy - Weinberg Principle states |
|
Definition
| - that frequencies of allels and genotypes in a population remain constant from generation to generation |
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|
Term
| Hardy - Weinberg Equlibrium describes |
|
Definition
- the constant frequency of allels in such a gene pool
- p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| - the frequencies of the homozygous genotypes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - the frequency of the heterozygous genotype |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - describes a hypothetical population |
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|
Term
| 5 conditons for nonevolving populations are rarely met in nature |
|
Definition
- no mutations - random mating - no natural selection - extremely large population size - no gene flow |
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Term
|
Definition
| - can evolve at some loci while being in Hardy - Weinberg equilibrium at other loci |
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|
Term
| 3 major factors alter allele frequencies and bring about most evloutionary change |
|
Definition
- natural selection - genetic drift - gene flow |
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Term
|
Definition
- describes how allele frequencies fluctuate unpredictably from 1 generation to the next - tends to reduce genetic variation through losses of alleles |
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Term
|
Definition
| - occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population |
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|
Term
| Allele frequencies in the small founder population |
|
Definition
| - can be different from those in the larger parent population |
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Term
|
Definition
| - is a sudden reduction in population size due to a change in the environmnet |
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Term
|
Definition
- genetic drift is significant in small populations - genetic drift causes allele frequencies to change at random - genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations - genetic dift cna cause harmful alleles to become fixed |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| - consists of the movement of alleles among populations |
|
|
Term
| Alleles can be transferred |
|
Definition
| - through the movement of fertile individuals or gametes |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| - reduce differences b/n populations over time |
|
|
Term
Gene Flow is more likely than mutation |
|
Definition
- to alter allele frequencis directly |
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|
Term
Gene Flow can decrease / increase |
|
Definition
- the fitness of a population |
|
|
Term
The movement of unfavorable alleles into a popualtion results: |
|
Definition
- in a decrease in fit b/n organism and environment |
|
|
Term
| Natural selection increases |
|
Definition
| - the adaptation of organisms to their environment over time |
|
|
Term
| If an environment changes over time, natural selection |
|
Definition
- may result in adaptation to these new conditions and may give rise to new species
-individuals do not evolve; populations evolve over time |
|
|
Term
Natural selection can only increase or decrease |
|
Definition
- heritable traits in a population |
|
|
Term
Adaptation vary with different environments, and natural selection does not |
|
Definition
- create new traits, but edits or selects for traits already present in the population |
|
|
Term
| Natural Selection brings about adaptive evolution |
|
Definition
| - by acting on an organism's phenotype |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions ofo ther individuals |
|
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Term
|
Definition
- directional
- disruptive
- stabilizing |
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|
Term
|
Definition
- favors individuals at 1 end of the phenotype range
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|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - favors individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - favors intermediate variants and acts aganist extreme phenotypes |
|
|
Term
| Natural Selection increases the |
|
Definition
| - frequencies of alleles that enhance surival and reproduction |
|
|
Term
Adaptive Evolution occurs as |
|
Definition
| - the match b/n an organism and its environment increases |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Genetic drift & Gene Flow do not |
|
Definition
| - consistently lead to adaptive evolution as they can increase / decrease the match b/n an organism and its environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is natural selection for mating success |
|
|
Term
| Sexual Selection can result in |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - marked differences b/n sexes in secondary sexual characteristics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is competition among individuals of 1 sex (often males) for mates of the opposite sex |
|
|
Term
Intersexual Selection
(mate choice) |
|
Definition
| - occurs when individuals of 1 sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates |
|
|
Term
| Diploidy maintains genetic variation |
|
Definition
| - in the form of hidden recessive alleles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - occurs when natural selection maintains stable frequencies of 2 or more phenotypic forms in a population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- occurs when heterozygotes have a higher fitness than do both homozygotes
|
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|
Term
| Example of Heterozygote Advantage |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- is genetic variation that appears to confer no selective advantage / disadvantage
|
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|
Term
| Example of Neutral Variation |
|
Definition
- variation in noncoding refions of DNA
- variation in porteins that have little effects on protein or reproductive fitness |
|
|
Term
| Chemical and physical processes on early Earth may have produced very simple cells through a sequences of stages |
|
Definition
1: abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
2: joining of these molecules into marcomolecules
3: packaginf of molecules into "protobionts"
4: origin of slef-replicating molecules |
|
|
Term
| Earth's early atmoshere likely contained |
|
Definition
- water vapor
- chemicals released by volcanic eruptions
(nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, hydrongen sulfide) |
|
|
Term
| A.I. Oparin & J.B.S Haldane |
|
Definition
| - hypothesized that the early atmoshere was a reducing environment |
|
|
Term
| Stanley Miller & Harold Urey |
|
Definition
| - conducted lab experiments that showed that the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules in a reducin atmosphere is possible |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - are aggregates of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane OR membrane - like structure |
|
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Term
|
Definition
- simple reproduction and metabolism
- maintain an internla chemical environment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- RNA molecules
- have been found to catalyze many different reactions
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|
|
Term
| For example, ribozymes can |
|
Definition
| - makes complementary copies of short stretches of their own sequences OR other short pieces of RNA |
|
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Term
|
Definition
- are ddesposited into layers called STRATA
- & are the richest source of fossils |
|
|
Term
| Fossil record is biased in favor of species that |
|
Definition
- existed for a long time
- were abundant and widespread
- had hard parts |
|
|
Term
| Sedimentary strata reveal |
|
Definition
| - the relative ages of fossils |
|
|
Term
| The absolute ages of fossils can be determined by |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - the time required for half the parent isotope to decay |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- is divided into the:
- Archaean
- Proterozoic
- Phanerozoic Eons |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| - mutlicellular eukaryotic life |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- oldest known fossils
- rock- like structures composed of many layers of bacteria and sediment |
|
|
Term
| The "oxygen revolution" from 2.7 to 2.2 billion years ago |
|
Definition
- posed a challenge for life
- provided opportunity to gain energy from light
- allowed organisms to exploit new ecosystems |
|
|
Term
| The hypothesis of ENDOSYMBIOSIS |
|
Definition
| - proposes that mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts & related organelles) were formally small prokaryotes living w/in larger host cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is a cell that lives w/in a host cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - supposes that mitochondria evolved before plastids through a sequence of endosymbiotic events |
|
|
Term
| Key evidence eupporting an endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria and plastids |
|
Definition
- similarities in inner membrane structures and functions
- division is similar in these organelles and some prokaryotes
- these organelles transcibe and thranslate their own DNA
- their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic than eukaryotic ribosomes |
|
|
Term
| The "snowball Earth" hypothesis suggests that |
|
Definition
| - periods of extreme glaciation confined life to the equatorial region OR deep - sea vents from 750 to 580 million years ago |
|
|
Term
| Cambrian Explosion refers to |
|
Definition
| - the sudden appearance of fossils resembling modern phyla in the Cambrian period (535 to 525 million years ago) |
|
|
Term
| Cambrian Explosion provides |
|
Definition
| - the 1st evidence of predator- prey interactions |
|
|
Term
| Earth's continents move slowly over the underlying hot mantle through the process of |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Interactions b/n plates cause the formation of |
|
Definition
- mountains
- islands
-earthquakes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- can alter ecological communties and the niches availabe to organisms
- can take 5 to 100 million yrs for diversit to recover
- can pave the way for adaptive radiations
- so far 5 mass extinction (6th? by human?) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is the evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor upon introduction to new environmental oppurtunities |
|
|
Term
| Adaptive Radiations can occur |
|
Definition
| - when organisms colonize new environments w/little competition |
|
|
Term
| Example of Adaptive Radiation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is an evolutionary change in the rate OR timing of developmental events |
|
|
Term
| Heterochrony can have a significant impact on |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is the evolutionary history of a species OR group of related species |
|
|
Term
| The discipline of SYSTEMATICS |
|
Definition
| - classifies organmisms and determines their evolutionary relationships |
|
|
Term
| To infer evolutionry relationships systematists use |
|
Definition
- fossil
- molecular
- & genetic data |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is the ordered division and naming of organisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - the 2 part scientific name of species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - the 1st part of the name |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- the second part
- is unique for eahc species w/in the genus |
|
|
Term
| Formate of the Binomial clature |
|
Definition
-1st letter of the genus is capitalized
- the entire species name is italicized
- both parts name the species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - introduced a system for grouping species in increasingly broad categories |
|
|
Term
| The taxonomic grroups broad to narrow are: |
|
Definition
- domain
- kingdom
- phylum
- class
-order
- family
- genus
- species
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - a taxonomic unit at any level of hierarchy |
|
|
Term
| Systematists depict evolutionary realtionships in branching |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - recognizes only groups that include a common ancestor and all its descendents |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - represents a hypothesis about evolutionary realtionships |
|
|
Term
| Each BRACH POINT in a phylogenetic tree represents |
|
Definition
| - the divergence of 2 species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - are groups that share an immediate common ancestor |
|
|
Term
| Phylogenetic tree do show |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Phylogenetic trees do not indicate |
|
Definition
| - when species evolved OR how much genetic change occured in a lineage |
|
|
Term
| Organisms w/similar MORPHOLOGIES or DNA sequences |
|
Definition
| - are likely to be more colsely related than organisms w/different structures OR sequences |
|
|
Term
| To infer phylogenies, systematists gather info about |
|
Definition
- morophologies
- genes
- & biochemistry
of living organisms |
|
|
Term
| Homology is similarity due to |
|
Definition
- shared ancestry
(divergent evolution) |
|
|
Term
| Analogy is similarity due to |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - use DNA and other molecualar data to determine evolutionary reationships |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - groups organisms by common descent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is a group of species that includes an ancestral species and all its descendents |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- nested in larger clades
BUT
- not al groupings of organisms qualify as clades |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- a valid clade
- signifying that it consists of the ancestor species and all its descendants |
|
|
Term
| a Shared Ancestral Character |
|
Definition
| - is a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon |
|
|
Term
| a Shared Derived Character |
|
Definition
| - is an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - ancestral and derived depending on the context |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - is a species OR group of species that is closely related to the INGROUP the various species being studied |
|
|
Term
| Systematists compate each ingroup species w/the outgroup to |
|
Definition
| - differentiate b/n shared derived and shared ancestral characteristics |
|
|
Term
| Homologies shared by the outgroup and ingroup |
|
Definition
| - are ancestral characters that predate the divergence of both groups from a common ancestor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- number of genetic changes that have taken place in a particular DNA sequences in that lineage
- chronological time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- assumes that the tree that requires the fewest evolutionary events (appearances of shared derived characters) is the most likely
- fewest changes |
|
|
Term
| the principle of Maximum Likelihood states that |
|
Definition
- given certain rules about how DNA changes over time
- a tree can be foound that reflect the most likely sequence of evolutionary events |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - allows us to predict features of an ancestor from fratures of its descendents |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - uses constant rates of evolution in some genes to estimat the absolute time or evolutionary change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - nucleotide substitutions are proportional to the time since they last shard a common ancestor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| - nucleotide substitutions are proportional to the time since the genes became duplicated |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- Monera
(prokaryotes)
- Protista
- Plantae
- Fungi
- Animalia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- Bacteria
- Archaea
- Eukarya |
|
|
Term
| Tree of Life suggests that |
|
Definition
| - eukaryotes & archaea are more closely related to each other than to bacteria |
|
|
Term
| The tree of life is based largely on |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
- is the movement of genes from 1 genome to another
- complicates efforts to build a tree of life |
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Term
| the mammalian order Primates includes |
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Definition
- lemurs
- tarsiers
- monkeys
- apes (humans are in this group) |
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Term
| Derived Characters of Primates |
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Definition
- hands and feet adapted for grasping
- a large brian & short jaws
- forward - lookin eyes close together on the face providing depth perception
- complex social behavior and parental care
- a fully OPPOSABLE THUMB (in monkeys and apes) |
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Term
| 3 main groups of living primates |
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Definition
- Lemurs, lorises and pottos
- Tarsiers
- ANTHROPOIDS (monkeys and apes) |
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Term
| Differences b/n Humans & other Apes |
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Definition
- upright posture & bipdedal lcomotion
- larger brians
- language capabilities & symolic though
- the manufacture & use of complex tool
- shortened jaw
- shorter digestive tract |
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Term
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Definition
| - the study of human origins |
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Term
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Definition
| - are more closely related to humans than chimpanzees |
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Term
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Definition
| - being able to walk on 2 legs |
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Term
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Definition
- found stone tools
- "handy man" |
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Term
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Definition
- was the 1st fully bipedal
- large brained hominid
- shows a significant decrease in sexual dimorhism (a size differences b/n sexes) compared with its ancestors |
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Term
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Definition
- 1st hominin to leave Africa
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Term
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Definition
- were thick-boned w/a larger brain
- they buried their dead
- they made hunting tools |
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Term
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Definition
- all living humans are descended from these African ancestors
- 1st group to show evidence of symbolic and sophisticated thought |
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