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| 23úÀÿ ÿÿÿÿ%“ "Accent1’A’ ÿAccent1 O½ÿ ÿÿÿÿ%“ #Accent2’A’!ÿAccent2 ÀPMÿ ÿÿÿÿ%“ $Accent3’A’%ÿAccent3 ›»Yÿ ÿÿÿÿ%“ %Accent4’A’)ÿAccent4 €d¢ÿ ÿÿÿÿ%“ &Accent5’A’-ÿAccent5 K¬Æÿ ÿÿÿÿ%“ 'Accent6’A’1ÿAccent6 |
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| ÿ???ÿ“+€ÿ’ ’ÿComma“,€ÿ’(’ÿ |
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| ÿÿ“6 Linked Cell’K’ÿ Linked Cell ÿú}ÿ%ÿÿ€ÿ“ 7Neutral’A’ ÿNeutral ÿÿëœÿ ÿœeÿ%“€ÿ’3’ÿNormal ÿ%“ |
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| Case studyJ - A research method in which an individual subject is studied in depth. Central nervous systemP - The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord. ChunkingU - The process of combining small bits of information into bigger, familiar pieces. Classical conditioningä - A type of learning in which a subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he would to another stimulus by learning to associate the two stimuli. It can also be called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning. |
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Definition
| Cognitionu - Thinking. It involves mental activities such as understanding, problem solving, decision making, and creativity. Cognitive development* - The development of thinking capacity. Cognitive schema0 - A mental model of some aspect of the world. Computerized tomography (CT)d - A method for studying the brain that involves taking x-rays of the brain from different angles. ConceptR - A mental category that groups similar objects, events, qualities, or actions. Conditioned response« - In classical and operant conditioning, a response that resembles an unconditioned response, achieved by pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus¦ - In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a response similar to an unconditioned response through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus. ConesI - Photoreceptor cells in the retina that allow people to see in color. |
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| Confabulationd - A phenomenon in which a person thinks he or she remembers something that did not really happen. Confirmation bias– - The tendency to look for and accept evidence that supports what one wants to believe and to ignore or reject evidence that refutes those beliefs. |
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Definition
| Consciousv - The part of the mind that contains all the information that a person is paying attention to at a particular time. |
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| Echoic memory - Auditory sensory memory. Elaborationo - A type of deep processing in which information being learned is associated with other meaningful material. !Electric stimulation of the brainv - An invasive method of studying the brain, in which an implanted electrode activates a particular brain structure. Electrocardiograph (EKG): - An instrument that records the activity of the heart. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)S - A biomedical treatment that uses electrical shocks to treat severe depression. Electroencephalograph (EEG)l - A device that records the overall electrical activity of the brain, via electrodes placed on the scalp. Electromyograph (EMG)0 - An instrument that records muscle activity. Electrooculograph (EOG). - An instrument that records eye movements. Encoding4 - The process of putting information into memory. Episodic memory' - The remembering of personal facts. Ethics - A system of moral values. Etiology' - The cause or origin of <� a disorder. |
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Definition
| Evolution8 - A change in the frequency of genes in a population. Expected value - The process of adding the value of a win times the probability of a win to the value of a loss times the probability of a loss in order to make a decision. |
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| Extinction - In classical conditioning, the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it s the gradual disappearance of a response after it stops being reinforced. Extraneous variable - A variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable. It is not part of the hypothesis. Factor analysiss - A statistical procedure that clusters variables into dimensions depending on similarities among the variables. Falsifiability: - The ability of a theory or hypothesis to be rejected. Fixed-interval scheduleX - A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set amount of time. Fixed-ratio schedule] - A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set number of responses. Flashbulb memories2 - Vivid, detailed memories of important events. |
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Definition
| Forebrain› - The biggest and most complex part of the brain, which includes structures such as the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the limbic system, and the cerebrum. Forgetting curveO - A graph that shows how quickly learned information is forgotten over time. |
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| Iconic memory - Visual sensory memory. Implicit memoryM - Unconscious retention of information that affects thoughts and behavior. |
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Definition
| IncentiveL - An environmental stimulus that pulls people to act in a particular way. Independent variable7 - The variable that is manipulated in an experiment. Inductive reasoningM - The drawing of a general conclusion from certain premises or statements. Inferential statisticsU - Statistics used to determine the likelihood that a result is just due to chance. Informed consent² - A subject s voluntary agreement to participate in a research study, given after he or she has learned enough about the study to make a knowledgeable decision to participate. Ingroup" - A group to which one belongs. Innate abilities+ - Abilities that are present from birth. Intelligence quotient (IQ)Y - A person s mental age divided by his or her chronological age and multiplied by 100. Interference theoryb - States that people forget information because of interference from other learned information. Intermittent reinforcement¡ - A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens only on some of the occasions a particular response occurs. It is also called partial reinforcement. Internal locus of controlK - The tendency to believe that one has control over one s circumstances. Interpretationš - A psychoanalytic technique that involves suggesting the hidden meanings of free associations, dreams, feelings, memories, and behavior to the client. Interval scheduleR - The schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular time interval. Kinesthesis: - The sense of the position and movement of body parts. Laboratory observationo - An observational research method in which information about subjects is collected in a laboratory setting. |
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| Maturation3 - Genetically programmed growth and development. Mean/ - The arithmetic average of a set of scores. Measures of central tendency - The mean, median, and mode. Median\ - The middle score in a set when all scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest. Memory9 - The capacity for storing and retrieving information. Method of locid - The process of imagining oneself physically in a familiar place in order to remember something. |
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Definition
| Mnemonics% - Strategies for improving memory. Mode<� - The most frequently occurring score in a set of scores. Motivated forgettinge - The idea that people forget things they don t want to remember; also called psychogenic amnesia. Motor developmentS - The increasing coordination of muscles that makes physical movements possible. Naturalistic observationu - A method of collecting information about subjects in a natural setting without interfering with them in any way. Negative correlatione - A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other one decreases. Negatively skewed distribution4 - A data distribution with a few very low scores. Negative punishment{ - In operant conditioning, t<� he removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be less likely to occur. Negative reinforcement{ - In operant conditioning, the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be more likely to occur. Nervous systemc - A complex, highly coordinated network of tissues that communicate via electrochemical signals. NeuronsG - Nervous system cells that communicate via electrochemical signals. NeurotransmittersK - Chemicals that are released from a neuron and activate another neuron. Normal distributionz - A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents how characteristics such as IQ are distributed in a large population. Observational learningu - A change in behavior or knowledge that happens by watching others. It can also be called vicarious conditioning. |
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| Reaction timeA - The amount of time a subject takes to respond to a stimulus. Recall: - The process of remembering without any external cues. RecognitionK - The process of identifying learned information by using external cues. Reflex& - An innate response to a stimulus. Regression toward the mean\ - The tendency for extreme states to move toward the average when assessed a second time. |
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Definition
| Rehearsal@ - The process of practicing material in order to remember it. |
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Term
| Replicabilitye - The ability of research to repeatedly yield the same results when done by different researchers. Representativeness heuristicl - A rule-of-thumb strategy that estimates the probability of an event based on how typical that event is. Representative sample‘ - A sample that corresponds to the population from which it is drawn in terms of age, sex, and other qualities on the variables being studied. Response tendency6 - A learned tendency to behave in a particular way. |
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Definition
| RetentionJ - The proportion of learned information that is retained or remembered. |
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| Sampling bias~ - A source of error that arises when the sample is not representative of the population that the researcher wants to study. Scalloped response pattern² - The phenomenon in which responses are slow in the beginning of the interval and faster just before reinforcement happens. It occurs as a result of a fixed-interval schedule. Schemao - A mental model of an object or event that includes knowledge about it as well as beliefs and expectations. Scientific method€ - A standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. Secondary process thinking+ - Thinking that is logical and rational. Secondary punisher¢ - In operant conditioning, a consequence that is unpleasant because it has become associated with a primary punisher. It is also <�@called a conditioned punisher. Secondary reinforcer¦ - In operant conditioning, a consequence that is satisfying because it has become associated with a primary reinforcer. It is also called a conditioned reinforcer. Selective attentionR - The ability to focus on some pieces of sensory information and ignore others. Self-report dataB - Information that people being surveyed give about themselves. Self-report inventory` - A paper-and-pen test that requires people to answer questions about their typical behavior. Semantic encodingO - A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes the meaning of words. Semantic memory" - Remembering of general facts. Semantic slantingU - A way of making statements so that they will evoke specific emotional responses. Sensory memoryM - A memory system that stores incoming sensory information for an instant. |
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Definition
| Serotonin¢ - A neurotransmitter involved in sleep, wakefulness, appetite, aggression, impulsivity, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and mood. Sex8 - A biological distinction between males and females. Shaping… - In operant conditioning, a procedure in which reinforcement is used to guide a response closer and closer to a desired response. Short-term memoryT - A memory system that stores a limited amount of information for a brief period. Single-blindc - A procedure in which subjects don t know whether they are in an experimental or control group. Skinner box1 - A device used to study operant conditioning. Social desirability biasR - The tendency of some people to describe themselves in socially approved ways. Soma= - The central area of a neuron; also called the cell body. Sound waves: - Changes in pressure generated by vibrating molecules. Source amnesia‚ - Inaccurate recall of the origin of information in memory. It is also called source misattribution or source monitoring error. Spontaneous recoveryY - In classical conditioning, the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response. Standard deviationb - A statistic that indicates the degree to which scores vary around the mean of a distribution. Standardized testsB - Tests with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. StandardizationH - The use of uniform procedures when administering and scoring tests. Standardization samplef - A large group of people that is representative of the entire population of potential test takers. States% - Temporary behaviors or feelings. Statistical significance8 - The likelihood that a result was not due to chance. |
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| w]T \_9Ö`³Yb6eò´g‘ÀiukR¹l–nï 9p @rùt¹žuW`wyÒÖz |
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| ™ 4dXXA4 (210 x 297 mm)LANIER MP 7500/LD275 PCL 6LPT1:XÃ$ˆX«° |
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| ” ä erdogan-p erdogan-p Microsoft Excel@€^^)à/É@€ìÉà/ÉþÿÕÍÕœ.“—+,ù®0ì |
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| rÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿÿ |
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| In general, the process of learning a new response. In classical conditioning, this involves producing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus. Pertaining to memory, this is the first stage of remembering in which we perceive the item and record its important features. |
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Definition
| a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate events. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. (Also known as Pavlovian conditioning.) |
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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus |
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in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
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CR stands for conditioned response. This response is the same as the unconditioned response, except that it is produced by the conditioned stimulus rather than by the unconditioned stimulus. |
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| CS stands for conditioned stimulus. This formerly neutral stimulus gradually begins to produce a conditioned response, as it becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. An example of a CS would be a dinner bell. extinction -- the diminishing of a response when, in classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); or when, in operant conditioning, a response is no longer reinforced |
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the formation of associative links between two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or between a response and a rewarding or punishing stimulus (as in operant conditioning) |
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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
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In classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal that behavior will be reinforced or nonreinforced. |
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(fixed-interval schedule); in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
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| (fixed-ratio schedule); in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that |
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| a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience |
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| Relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. |
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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. |
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| a type of learning in which a behavior is strengthened or diminished, depending on the nature of the consequences that follow it |
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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
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in operant conditioning, a situation in which the subject receives a reinforcer after performing a particular operant behavior and does not receive a reinforcer if that operant behavior is not performed. Thus the presence of the reinforcer increases the likelihood that the behavior will occur. |
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| A therapeutic technique utilising classical conditioning principles, in which an individual learns to associate an undersirable behaviour or object, such as illicit drugs, with an unpeasant response, such as fear or nausea. Therefore, after conditioning, when an individual craves this undersirable substance, they will experience the negative response and therefore avoid consuming the substance. |
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| Built-in bias ensuring that some relationships between stimuli and responses will be learned more readily than others. |
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| In classical conditioning, the stimulus that is predictive of the unconditioned stimulus. |
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| Conditioning in which people learn that certain environmental stimuli can predict certain responses. |
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| In classical conditioning, the response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus. |
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| In classical conditioning, the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response that happens when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. |
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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning |
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| a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, and devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking; used in operant conditioning research |
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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth |
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| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response |
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UR stands for unconditioned response. This is an automatic response that is always produced by an unconditioned stimulus. For example, lemon juice in your mouth (an unconditioned stimulus) triggers the release of saliva (the unconditioned response). |
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US stands for unconditioned stimulus. This type of stimulus always produces a response. The association doesn't need to be learned. An example of a US would be lemon juice, which always produces salivation. |
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| variable-interval schedule |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
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| in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
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| In behavior modification, the response rate before beginning the behavior modification program. |
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| In operant conditioning, a stimulus signaling that a response will be reinforced. |
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| The systematic use of techniques from learning theory to change human behavior. |
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| continuous reinforcement schedule |
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| In operant conditioning, situations in which the subject is reinforced on every correct trial. |
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| In operant learning, situations in which reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses have been made. |
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| In operant learning, situations in which reinforcement is given for the first correct response made after the specified period of time has passed. |
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| Principle indicating that when an animal is engaged in operant conditioning, its behavior will drift in the direction of instinctive behaviors related to the task it is learning. |
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| In operant conditioning, responses resulting in rewarding consequences are learned, whereas responses with punishing consequences are weakened and not learned. |
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| In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits an unlearned response. |
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In classical conditioning, an unlearned response to a stimulus. |
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| In classical conditioning, the tendency for similar stimuli other than the original conditioned stimulus to produce the conditioned response. |
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| Process whereby organisms learn to differentiate between similar stimuli. |
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| In classical conditioning, the reappearance of the conditioned response after previous extinction. |
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| Development of an intense dislike for a food through classical conditioning. |
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| nictitating-membrane reflex |
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| In rabbits, chemical substances stored in the neurons that alter the electrical activity of the postsynaptic neuron. |
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| System that protects the body against infection, allergies, bacteria, viruses, and other dangers. |
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| An interdisciplinary area that examines the relationship between the central nervous system and the immune system. |
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| | | Phenomenon that occurs when a person is given a substance that contains no active ingredient and yet experiences some relief from specific symptoms. |
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| Phenomenon that occurs when a person is given a substance that contains no active ingredient and yet experiences some relief from specific symptoms. |
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| Type of conditioning that involves learning to make a response because it produces a reinforcing effect and learning not to make a response because it produces a punishing effect. Also known as instrumental conditioning. |
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| instrumental conditioning |
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Definition
| Type of conditioning that involves learning to make a response because it produces a reinforcing effect and learning not to make a response because it produces a punishing effect. Also known as operant conditioning. |
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| In operant conditioning, something positive that is added to the situation after the correct response has been made. |
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| In operant conditioning, something negative that is taken away or avoided after the correct response has been made. |
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| In operant conditioning, something negative that is added or something positive that is taken away following an inappropriate response. This tends to decrease the probability of the response that it follows; however, it does not automatically increase the frequency of the appropriate behavior. |
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| In operant conditioning, the systematic reinforcement of gradual improvements toward the desired behavior. |
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| partial reinforcement schedule |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, situations in which the subject is reinforced only part of the time. Also known as intermittent reinforcement. |
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| In operant learning, situations in which reinforcement is given after a varying number of responses have been made. |
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| variable-interval schedule |
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Definition
| In operant learning, situations in which reinforcement is given for the first response made after a varying period of time has passed. |
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| Reinforcer that can satisfy a basic biological need, most likely food or water. |
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| Reinforcer that does not satisfy a basic biological need but acquires its rewarding power by association with another established reinforce. |
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| Tool in behavior modification in which good behavior is quickly reinforced by a symbol or token; the tokens can then be accumulated and exchanged for a reinforcer. |
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| Learning of new behaviors by watching and imitating the behavior of others. Also known as modeling and social learning. |
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| Learning new behaviors by watching and imitating the behavior of others (models). Also known as observational learning and social learning. |
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| Learning new behaviors by watching and imitating the behavior of others in a social situation. Also known as observational learning and modeling. |
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| In observational learning, reinforcement of the learner that occurs when the model receives reinforcement. |
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| In observational learning, punishment of the learner that occurs when the model receives punishment. |
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| Internalized sense of satisfaction at performing well. |
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| Internalized sense of dissatisfaction for poor performance. |
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| In observational learning, a generalized idea that captures the important components, but not every exact detail. Pertaining to memory and person perception, a generalized idea about objects, people, and events that are encountered frequently. |
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| Research method in which researchers manipulate the independent variable to determine its effects on the dependent variable, that is, the behavior of the participants in the experiment. |
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| Systematic, statistical method for synthesizing the results from numerous studies on a given topic, yielding a single number that indicated whether a particular factor has an overall effect on behavior. |
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| Research study resembling an experiment but lacking random assignment of participants to groups. Instead, researchers locate a situation in which groups already exist that differ substantially from each other. |
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| Research in which psychologist try to determine whether two variables or measure are related. In this type of research, behavior can be observed in real-life settings, with neither random assignment to groups nor the manipulation of independent variables. |
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| In educational psychology, the technique in which a teacher performs actions while verbalizing reasons for those actions. The teacher models not only correct procedures, but also how to cope with errors. |
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| Intense, irrational fears of particular objects or situations. |
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| The process of forming a connection between two or more timuli whcih can be developed through learning or conditioning. |
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| An individual's directly observable actions which may be used as a measure of learning. |
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| The systematic application of classical and operant learning principles to adapt or modify a person's behaviour. |
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| learning which involves higher level processing, involving thinking, understanding, knowing and anticipation. |
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