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| the collection of beliefs we hold about ourselves |
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| where the goal is being seen as likeable, attractive; telling new boss you like his tie |
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| when you try to arouse fear, or gain some sort of power by convincing someone you are dangerous; tattoos, body language |
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| tyring to impress someone with your own accomplishments |
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| attempt to project integrity, moral worthiness |
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| where you advertise your weakness, your dependence to get help from others |
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| how our parents, teachers, friends treat us affects how we view ourselves |
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| parents give us feedback; there is a strong relationship between what parents think about their child's abilities and what the child thinks |
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| the conecpt of the self varies depending on culture |
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| a way of defining yourself in your own internal thoughts, feelings and actions |
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| a way of defining yourself in terms of your relationship to other people |
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| we change and evolve overtime |
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| existence of possible selves |
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| you have the person you are now, you also have the option of changing when you get married, go to grad school, have kids |
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| the number of dimensions that people use to think about themselves; the more possible selves, the more complex the dimensions are going to be |
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| refers to the evaluation of ourselves along a positive-negative continuum |
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| we learn about our attitudes and abilities by comparing ourselves to others; it has three goals |
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| people want truthful information about themselves; prefer objective information; opinions are ok if objective info is unavailable |
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| make downward social comparisons; allows you to feel better about yourself |
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| making an upward social comparision; serve as a model for success |
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| Tesser's self-evaluation maintenace theory |
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| our self-concept can be threated by anothers behavior |
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| the level of threat is determined by; tessers self-eval |
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| the closeness of the other person; the personal relevance of the behavior |
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| when close friend outperforms us in relevant behavior, we feel envious, frustrated, angry |
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| when close friend out performs us in irrelevant behavior, we take pride in the person's success |
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| How can we reduce negative feelings from 'comparision effect'? |
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| you can distance yourself from the person; you can change how relevant the task is our self-concept; you can change your performance on relevant task |
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| refers to the need to feel good about ourselves and maintain self-esteeem |
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| positive illusions (self enhancement) |
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| positive exaggerated self-perceptions |
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| theory suggests that when we focus on ourselves, we evaluate and compare our current behavior against our internal values and standards; basically we become self-conscious |
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| cybernetic theory of self-regulation |
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| aka self-awareness theory |
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| self-awareness theory, 5-step process |
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Definition
| 1. come across focusing cue, 2. become self-conscious, 3. compare thoughts to personal standards, 4. if behaving to standards everything is fine, 5. if behaving against standards, you can change behavior or abandon standard |
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| link between self-awareness and moral behavior |
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| those with self-aware trigger are less likely to cheat |
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| refers to creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves, so if we do poorly on a task, we have a ready made excuse |
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| behavioral self handicapping |
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| when the person actively constructs obstacles |
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| self-reported self handicapping |
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| when you claim to feel sick or anxious |
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| refers to degree to which individuals regulate their behavior; continuum |
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| regulate their behavior on the basis of external events, are sensitive to situational cues, "social chameleons" |
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| high self-monitors characteristics |
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| tends to select a companion on basis of how well the person performs, prefes a variety of partners, interested in connections |
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| they can get along with a bunch of people |
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| can be seen as self-interested opportunists who take advantage of the situation |
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| regulate their behavior on basis of internal factors (own attitude, beliefs, thoughts) |
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| low self-monitors characteristics |
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| tends to select a companion on basis of how much they like the person |
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| they can be seen as person who sticks up for what they believe in |
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| they are seen as insensitive, inflexible, close-minded |
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| refers to an enduring evaluation, positive or negative, of people, objects, and ideas |
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| evalutatio is comprised of three elements |
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| affective, behavioral, cognitive |
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| referst to the extent to which an inidividual feels strongly in one direction or another |
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| how relevant the attitude is to you, the greater your vested interest, the strong the interest in the subject |
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| how clear you are about your attitude |
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| how strongly you believe you are correct |
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| role of personal experiences |
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| direct experience is going to affect your attitude more than indirect experience |
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| theory of planned behavior |
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| many situations are not spontaneous, it is planned; when people have time to plan behavior, the best predictor is intention |
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| specific attitude towards behavior |
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| refers to your belief about how people you care about are going ot view your behavior |
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| perceived behavioral control |
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| how easy it will be for you to perform the behavior in question |
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| elaboration likelihood model |
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| central route to persuasion |
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| when people are motivated and focused, if the arguments are strong and relevant->persuasion likely->long lasting attitude change |
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| peripheral route to persuasion |
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| low motivation, distracted; if the peripeheral cues are compelling peruasion is likely->temporary attitude change |
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| heuristic-systematic model |
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| makes distinction between two levels of processing, called heuristic and systematic |
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| invovled use of systematic processes, focus on strength of arguments |
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| uninvolved people use heuristic processes, simple decision rules |
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| communicator, communication, target, situation |
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| communicator - credibility |
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| much better at changing peoples minds if they are credible; present a balanced argument, unbiased and trustworthy, well-spoken with impressive credentials |
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| communicator - likeability |
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| the more attractive you are, the more people like you; more influenced by people similar to you |
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| communication - discrepancy |
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| two options: 1. take extreme position or 2. use caution (research supports this option) |
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| communication - fear arousal |
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| increased fear increases attitude change, but only to a point; if used too much it can be disruptive; key is to offer solutions |
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| communication - repetition |
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| two options: 1. may reinforce liking of product or 2. may get tired of message and tune out; repetition works for strong arguments |
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| our personal commitment affects how readily we are going to change it |
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| ways to increase commitment |
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| 1. we behave on the basis of an attitude, 2. take a public stance, 3. have direct experience with an issue, 4. take a position willingly |
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| target - issue involvement |
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| known as personal relevance |
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| target - response involvement |
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| referst to when our response to an issue may bring social approval or disapproval |
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| if people know what you are trying to do it may be harder to change their attitude |
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| to get people to consider the arguments for and against their attitude before someone attacks it, to help defend their position |
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| providing additional arguments that the person may not have thought of |
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| Cognitive consistency theories |
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| we strive for consistency and coherence in our cognitions. Two theories |
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| considers the consistency among emotions within a simple cognitive systems; involves two people and an attitude object |
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| two ways for balance to happen |
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| when two people have postive feelings for each other and agree on an attitude; OR when two people have negative feelings for each other and disagree on an attitude |
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| comfortable, stable, and resistant to change |
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| stressful, unstable, open to change |
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| how can balance be restored, 3 ways |
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| 1. change attitude about object, 2. change attitude toward person, 3. persuade the other person to change attitude |
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| cognitive dissonance; major assumptions |
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Definition
| theres a pressure towards consistency between attitude and behavior; dissonance occurs when they are consistent; dissonence creates tension and we want to reduce it |
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| how can we reduce dissonance? |
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Definition
| change your behavior, believe that tension isnt that big of a deal so don’t do anything; or change attitude (most common) |
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| post-decisional dissonance |
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| the tension you feel after you make a decision; the more permanent the decision, the more we feel we need to reduce the dissonance |
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| attitude discrepent behavior, 6 conditions |
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| six conditions where dissonance is created so attitude change is likely |
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| if you are rewarded for your behavior, your attitude will not change because you have external rewards. Grasshopper example |
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| if your behavior results from having chosen the attitude-> dissonance; if your behavior results from having forced the attitude->no dissonance. I.e. bank robbery |
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| if you feel you cannot change your mind, you are going to have dissonance |
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| people need to believe that they could have foreseen the negative consequences before they occur |
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| personal responsibility for consequences |
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| when we choose something that turns out badly, we feel responsible for that decision, we have dissonance and may end up changing our attitude |
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| the more effort you put into something that has aversive consquences, the more dissonance that occurs, results in the more attitude change. I.e. basic training |
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| nationality, racial identity, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, appearance, profession, hobbies |
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| simple dislike --> hatred --> thinking groups members as less than human --> murder, genocide |
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| (affective) hostile or negative feeling toward a distinguishable group of people, based on membership of that group |
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| (cognitive) generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all the members of the group, regardless of actual variation among members |
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| (behavioral) unjustifid negative or harmful action toward a member of a group, based on membership in that group |
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| refers to the beliefs regarding the characteristics that are perceived to be generally true of men and women |
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| effect of gender roles on work environment |
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| affect attitudes about suitability; link to prestige and salary; more women that choose a profession, the less prestige and salary goes down |
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| barrier that prevent qualified women to advancing to top positions |
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| men who enter typically female roles rapidly rise to elite positions |
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| negative attitude towards women who challenge mens power, act more like men, reject tradtional gender roles |
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| positive attitude towards women who embrace typical gender roles |
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| rewards women who are tied to gneder roles and negative attitude towards women who challenge mens power |
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| when are gender stereotypes activated? amount of information |
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Definition
| the less you know about someone, the more likely you are to let stereotypes affect the situation |
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| when are gender stereotypes activated? Salience of group membership |
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| does the persons gender stand out or not? i.e. women in engineering committee, or man in department store |
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| when are gender stereotypes activated? Power and stereotyping |
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| people in positions of power are more likely to let gender stereotypes impact employees; subordinates are less likely to use gender stereotypes of the powerful person |
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| what women are supposed to be; kind, warm, helpful, attentive, nurturing |
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| when men are supposed to be; dominating, assertive, controlling, confident, independent |
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| causes of prejudice; the way we think |
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| us vs. them (creation of groups), create an in-group and an out-group |
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| consequences of creating in-groups |
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| in-group bias; favoritism; postive feelings for people determined to be in the in-group, and negative feelings for those in the out-group |
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| consequences of creating out-groups |
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| out-group homogeneity; perception that those in the out-group are more similar to each other than they really are |
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| cant argue with someone who is highly prejudice, you cannot counter emotions with logic |
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| social condition shift needed for change stereotypes |
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| fundamental attribution error (FAE) |
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| tendency to overestimate internal factors, but underestimate situational factors |
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| Ulitmate attribution error |
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| our tendency to make dispostional attributions about an entire group of people |
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| when discrimination occurs, it's easier to believe the person or group brought it on themselves |
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| combines pro-minority and anti-minority elements |
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| absoluetely all people are created equal |
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| all peple are created equal but 'this' group doesn’t work that hard |
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| target's behavior is iproff that your expenctancy was right, you don’t realize the role you played is causing the target's response |
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| holding prejudiced views of an out-group allows in-group members to enhance their self-image |
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| realistic conflict theory |
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| limited resouces lead to conflict between groups and reults in increaed prejudice and discrimination |
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| blame others when a logical competitor doesn’t exist, i.e. nazi germany -> blame jews for problems |
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| the way we confrom; norms |
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| beliefs held by a society as to what is correct, acceptable, and permissible; varies across time and culture |
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| parents, teachers, peers, media |
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| racist attitudes held by a majority simply because we live in a society in which racism is the norm |
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| implicit association test |
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| we associate weapson with black faces more than white faces; measure reaction time when shown a picture of a weapon and male/female white and non-white person |
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| traditional forms of racism against minorities, but African Americans in particular |
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| 3 components to old-fashioned racism |
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| belief in white superiorty; belief in racial segregation; discrimination against all blacks |
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| more subtle racist beliefs, may only share racist beliefs in certain situation, role of denial, attitude that discrimination is history |
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| suggests that prejudice against minorities can be reduced by appropriate kinds of contact with individual members of that group |
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| research of contact hypothesis |
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| has been the main approach to reduce racism, but it is not good enough |
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| 6 conditions where contact will reduce prejudice |
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| 1. mutual interdependence, 2. common goal, 3. equal status, 4. friendly, informal setting, 5. typicality, 6. social norms operating |
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| wanted to reduce prejudice in classroom setting; research shows: decrease in prejudice and stereotyping, increase in liking group mates, increase in performance on exams, increase in self-esteem, increase liking of school, show evidence of true integration, increased ability to empathize with others |
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| our tendency to categorize people into in-groups and out-groups is very strong |
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| how can we re-categorize? |
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| need individuals belonging to different groups to view themselves as one large group, i.e. working moms vs. stay at home moms -> all moms |
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| if people learn through social influence, maybe the same process can be used to reduce prejudice beliefs |
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| social influence study example |
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| subjects=caucasian americans, rated African Americans on stereotypical traits; two groups 1. favorable feedback group; learned that other students had more favorable opinions, 2. unfavorable feedback group; learned that students had a more unfavorable views; results=affected by social influence; 2. agreed with more negative 1. had a decrease of negative stereotypes |
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