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| Adaptation to the environment |
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Definition
| Learning-any process through which experience at one time can alter an individual’s behavior at a future time |
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| Two stimuli, a response and its consequences |
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| Doesn’t normally afflict a response or reflex action by itself |
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| Always elicits a reflex action: an unconditioned response |
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| will afflict reflex action |
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The stimulus that was originally neutral becomes conditioned after it has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus
Will eventually elicit the unconditioned response by itself |
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| The original unconditioned response becomes conditioned after it has been elicited by the neutral stimulus |
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| Type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement of diminished if followed by punishment |
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| Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
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| Conditioning procedure in which reinforces guide behavior toward closer approximations of a designed goal |
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| Innately reinforcing stimulus, Satisfies a biological need (food, sleep) |
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| Conditioned reinforce, Learned through association with primary reinforce (money) |
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| Reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs, Learning occurs rapidly, Extinction (stopping behavior) occurs rapidly |
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| Reinforcing a response only part of the time, Results in slower learning, Greater resistance to extinction (stopping behavior) |
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| Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses,Faster you respond the more rewards you get, Very high rate of responding |
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| Reinforced a response after an unpredictable number of responses, Like gambling, fishing, Very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability |
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| Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed, Response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near |
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Reinforced a response at unpredictable time intervals
Produces slow steady responding |
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| Reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR |
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| Tendency for a stimuli similar to CS to evoke similar responses |
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| In classical conditioning, the ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal and UCS, In operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced |
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| over justification effect |
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Definition
| the effects of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the tasks |
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| learning by observing and imitating others |
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| process of observing and limiting behavior |
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| positive, constructive, helpful behavior, opposite of antisocial behavior |
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| Holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics, very brief retention of images, attention is needed to transfer information to working memory store |
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Conscious processing of information
Where information is actively worked on, brief storage, 30 secs |
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| Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds |
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| Grouping small bits of information into longer units of information, Expands working memory load |
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| Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory; unlimited capacity, permanent storage |
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| Process that controls movement form working to long-term memory |
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| Process that controls flow of info from long-term to working memory store |
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| Unconscious encoding of information |
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| Requires attention and conscious effort |
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| Processing only superficial characteristics of a piece of information |
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| focus on meaning of information to encode information into LTM |
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| Memory tied to your own personal experiences |
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| Memory not tied to personal events, General facts and definitions |
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| Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses, Ex. Riding a bike, using stick shift while driving |
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| Hierarchical Organization |
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| Related items clustered together to form categories, Related categories clustered to form higher-order categories, Remember list items better if list presented in categories |
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| inability to retrieve previously available information |
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| Forgetting as encoding failure |
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| Information never encoded to LTM |
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| Forgetting as retrieval failure |
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| Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures, Sometimes info is encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it |
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| caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory |
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| when an old memory interferes with remembering new info |
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| when a new memory interferes with remembering old info |
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| a clue, prompt of hint that can help memory retrieval |
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| must retrieve info learned earlier |
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| only need to identify the correct answer |
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| Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding |
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| Recall not an exact replica of original events, Recall a construction built and rebuilt from various sources |
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| Giving misleading info after an event causes subject to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading info |
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| Mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people |
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| The best example of a category |
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| Rule or set of steps that guarantees solving a particular problem |
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| Rule-of-thumb strategy that allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently |
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| Sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem, Often occurs over after some time has elapsed (incubations) |
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| Tendency to search for info that confirms one’s preconceptions |
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| Inability to see a problem from a new perspective, Interferes with problem solving |
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| Tendency to approach a problem in a particular way that has worked in the past |
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Tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
Interferes with problem solving |
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| Representativeness Heuristic |
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| Rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or mouth, particular prototype |
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Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, If instances come readily to mind we assume they are common
Thinking |
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| Tendency to overestimate the accuracy to one’s beliefs and judgements |
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Tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
Sometimes by making in valid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid |
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| Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
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| Spoken, written, or gestured way of communicating |
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| Smallest distinctive sound unit in speech |
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| Smallest unit of language that carries meaning, May be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) |
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| System of rules in a language |
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| Study of meaning in a language |
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| Rules for combining words into grammatical sentences, We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all the world’s language |
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| Beginning at 3-4 months, [image]Infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language |
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| From about age 1-2, Child speaks mostly in single words |
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| Early speech stage in which the child uses mostly nouns and verbs and omits “auxiliary” words |
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| Crystallized intelligence |
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| Mental ability derived from experiences, Word meanings, use of tools, cultural practices |
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| Capacity to learn, Predicts future performance |
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| Chronological age that corresponds to a given level of performance |
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| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
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| Defined originally the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100 |
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| Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardization/comparison group |
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| Symmetrical bell-shaped curve, Most scores fall near the average and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes |
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| Extent to which test yields consistent results |
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| Extent to which a test measures what it’s supposed to |
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| oExtent to which a test samples the appropriate behavior/info |
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| Predictive/criterion-related validity |
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| Success with which a test predicts the behavior it’s designed to predict, Assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and a criterion behavior |
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| Desire to perform a behavior for it’s own sake or to be effective |
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| Desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment |
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“releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
o only short-term effects, no long-term benefit |
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| Feel-good, do-good phenomenon |
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| people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood |
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| Perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself |
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