1.                  Describe the parts of a spermatozoan.

1.                  Describe the structure of mammalian and echinoderm eggs.

1.                  Sperm swim to ova, bind to receptors. Receptors trigger the rupture of acrosome and the elongation of the sperm cel

2.                  l to penetrate towards the ova plasma membrane. Sperm and ova fuse and the sperm nucleus is forced into ova (fertilization has occurred). A cortical rxn is triggered.  

1.                  Describe the cortical reaction and what does it accomplish?  How does it differ in mammals and echinoderms?

1.  
   1. The cortical reaction protects the ovum from becoming polyploid. Once a sperm fuses with the plasma membrane it triggers the cortical reaction. Cortical granules bind to the plasma membrane and spew their contents into the space between the plasma membrane and zona pellucida / vitelline membrane.

                                                              i.      Mammals: alters the texture of the zona pellucida making it impenetrable.

                                                            ii.      Echinoderms: alters the vitelline membrane causing it to expand, pushing away sperm before becoming rigid and impenetrable. 

1.                  Contrast radial and spiral cleavage.

Gastrula – when the blastula invaginates and forms a pocket. This embryonic tissue will give rise to adult tissues including

1.      endoderm – lining of gut and digestive organs

2.      ectoderm – give  rise to skin, hair, nails, and nervous tissue

3.      mesoderm – middle tissue, bones, muscle, connective tissue, and coelom

Morulation – solid mass or disc of blastomeres

Blastula – (blastodisc) when the morula has a fluid filled center.  The fluid filled center is called a blastocoele

1.                  Describe how the following animals are different: acoelomic, Pseudocoelomic, eucoelomic.

 Acoelomic – triploblastic w/o coelom

Pseudocoelomic – body cavity not completely lined by muscle or connective tissue

1.                  Describe schizocoelomic and enterocoelomic development.

1.      endoderm – lining of gut and digestive organs

2.      ectoderm – give  rise to skin, hair, nails, and nervous tissue

3.      mesoderm – middle tissue, bones, muscle, connective tissue, and coelom

1.                  What three events take place during gastrulation?

1.  
   1. Formation of embryonic tissues that will develop into adult tissues – endo, meso and ectoderm
   2. The archenteron (gastrocoele) forms. The initial opening where the blastula invaginates will develop into an opening for the digestive cavity. If it’s the only opening, it’s a closed digestive tract.
   3. Coelom development – the internal body cavity that lacks an opening to the outside. The coelom is lined by muscle and connective tissue.

1.                  Describe tissues, organs, and organ systems.  Name the eleven organ systems of mammals.

1.  
   1. Tissue level development – animals have tissues but lack organs
   2. Organ level development – have tissues and organs, but lack organs systems
   3. Organ system development – have tissues organs and organs systems

1.  
   1. organs systems

1.       integumentary system

2.       muscular system

3.       skeletal system

4.       nervous system

5.       excretory system (nitrogen wastes)

6.       digestive system

7.       immune system

8.       cardiovascular system

9.       reproductive system

10.    lymphatic system

11.    endocrine system (hormones)

1.                  What are the types of symmetry?

1.  
   1. Asymmetry (amorphous) – without symmetry
   2. Radial symmetry – multiple planes of symmetry, like a pie
   3. Bilateral symmetry – only one plane of symmetry, like mammals

1.                  Describe the relationship between the following: ectothermic, endothermic, heterothermic, homeothermic, poikilothermic, warm blooded, cold blooded.

1.  
   1. Ectothermic – body temps require external environment
   2. Endothermic – physiological mechanism maintains body temp
   3. Heterothermic – core temperature fluctuates
   4. Homeothermic – core temperature remains steady
   5. Poikilothermic – endothermic heterotherm - animal whose body temperature fluctuates
   6. Warm blooded – typically endothermic homeotherms  (with exceptions)
   7. Cold blooded – typically ectothermic heterotherms

1.                  Metazoa represents a monophyletic clade. Multicellular heterotrophs, lacking a cell wall, and showing some level of cell specialization.

1.                  Describe the evolutionary relationships and characteristics of the major metazoan clades discussed in lecture: know their physical characteristics, know who is related to whom, which clades are polyphyletic, and which terms designate formal taxons and which are descriptive.

1.                  Metazoa evolved approximately 700 ma in the Upper Proterozoic era of the Precambrian eon. Known as the Ediacarian epoch

1.                  How do Porifera feed and reproduce?

1.  
   1. Poriferans feed by filtering water for organic debris and phagocytize.
   2. Most sponges can reproduce asexually. A small piece can grow into a complete sponge. Some produce structures called gemmules which grow into a new sponge
   3. Most are hermaphroditic, choanocytes produce sperm, and/or choanocytes or amoebocytes form ova
   4. Sperm fertilizes ova in the mesenchyme à develops into a ciliated amphiblastula larvae à breaks out into the spongocoele and out the osculum and becomes a sponge

1.                  Describe the characteristics and relationships between the following: Metazoa, Parazoa, Porifera, Calcarea, Hexactinellida, Desmospongidae, Sclerospongidae.

1.  
   1. Kingdom                                                            i.      Subkingdom Parazoa – (next to the animals) contains only 1 major phylum        1.      Phylum Porifera - sponges                  a.       Class Calcarea – calcareous sponges, spicules of CaCO₃, Scypha, Grantia             b.      Class Hexactinellida – Glass sponges, spicules of fused silicon, 6 pronged      c.                         Class Desmospongidae – bash sponges, spicules of unfused silicon, contains sponging.  Used for commercial sponges    d.                        Class Sclerospongidae – hard sponges, spicules of silicon with a shell of  CaCO₃, deep water sponges 

1.                  Describe the relationship between the following:  mesoglea, mesohyl, mesenchyme, amoebocytes, pinacocytes, choanocytes, spicules, silicon, calcium carbonate, spongin, spongocoele, radial canal, ostia, asconoid, syconoid, leuconoid.

1.  
   1. Mesenchyme – (mesohyl, mesoglea), a gelatinous matrix in which cells are imbedded in
   2. Amoebocytes – secrete spicules, spongin, and probably mesenchyme, and may form gametes

c.                         Pinacocytes – epidermal or pinacodermal cells that line the outer and inner surfaces of the sponge, lacks a basement membrane, not true epithelial tissue

d.                        Choanocytes – flagellated cells that line the spongocoele of the sponge. Creates a flow of water through the porocytes, through the spongocoele and out the osculum

e.                         Spicules – act as an internal support structure for sponge cells, are of specific composition (silicon or CaCO₃), secreted by amoebocytes

1.  
   1. Spongin – an elastic protein that gives a commercial sponge its spongy texture. Desmospongidae
   2. Spongocoele – (atrium), the internal chamber of a sponge, not a digestive tract
   3. Radial canal -
   4. Ostia – ostiem (porocytes), allow water to enter the spongocoele
   5. Asconoid – simplest, have a large single spongocoele
   6. Syconoid – have side chambers to the central spongocoele
   7. Leuconoid – most complex, have side chambers coming off the spongocoele’s side chambers

1.      spiral cleavage

2.      determinate blastomeres  (at 32 cells)

3.      mouth forms from the blastopore of the gastrula

4.      they’re schizocoelous  (coelom develops from mesoderm)

5.      dorsal heart  (if present)

1.      radial cleavage

2.      indeterminate blastomeres  (at 32 cells)

3.      anus forms from the blastopore of the gastrula

4.      they’re enterocoelous  (coelom pinches off archenteron)

5.      ventral heart

1.                  Describe the characteristics and relationships between the following: Metazoa, Eumetazoa, Radiata, Cnidaria, Hydrazoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa, Anthozoa, Ctenophora, Placozoa. 

c.       Phylum Cnidaria 

                                                                    i.                        Class Hydrazoa 

                                                                  ii.                        Class Scyphozoa 

                                                                iii.                        Class Cubozoa 

                                                                iv.                        Class Anthozoa 

a.       (comb jellies) lack cnidocytes, jellyfish like appearance, swim with 8 rows of ciliated cells called comb rows, have adhesive cells to capture small inverts on long tentacles, mouth is anterior, most bioluminescent

a.       – jelly fish, sea anemones, corals, radial symmetry, show tissues, but not well developed organs, diploblastic. Medusa form has a posterior mouth. Ectoderm - Musculoepithelial cells are covering cells with contractile properties for movement and prey capturing. Nerve cells for a nerve net for coordinated movement. Ocelli are clusters of light sensitive nerve cells, Cnidocytes are stinging cells and contains nematocysts that harpoon their prey. Endoderm – forms inner layer, digestive tract, secretes digestive enzymes into the coelenteron. Between the two layers is a secreted protein called mesoglea (the jelly of the jellyfish)

                                                                    i.                        polyp, fresh water, have stinging tentacles, sessile (non motile), some form colonies. Hydra, Obelia, Physalia (Portugese man-o-war)

                                                                    i.                        jelly fishes, medusa, free swimming (pelagic), phototropism, posses ocelli

nematocysts contain a coiled tube that explodes out of the cnidocyte when the cnidocil is triggered. The coiled tube contains a toxin. Nematocysts can only be used once. Some flatworms and mollusks are able to eat cnidarians without discharging the nematocysts and transfer the cnidocytes to other regions on there body to use for protection.  

1.                  Compare polyps and medusae. 

1.                  Describe the life cycle of a true jelly (Schyphozoa).

1.  
   1. Eggs and sperm produced by adult medusae w/i testes and ovaries and released in the water where fertilization occurs.
   2. Zygote divides and forms a larva called a planula. Ciliated free swimming stage
   3. Planula swims, and settles on the ocean floor and develops into a feeding polyp called Scyphistoma
   4. Scyphistoma begins to section itself into several medusae called the Strobila in this stage
   5. Medusal forms develop from the Strobila, dislodge and swim off as Ephyra and will develop into a mature medusa.

1.                  Describe the characteristics and relationships between the following: Metazoa, Eumetazoa, Bilateria, Acoela, Platyhelminthes, Digenea, Monogenea, Turbellaria, Trematoda, Cestoda.

a.      Kingdom Metazoa

                          i.      Subkingdom Eumetazoa

1.      Branch Bilateria

         a.      Infrakingdom Acoela 

                                                                                                     i.      Phylum Platyhelm                               1.      Class Turbellaria .                  2.      Class Cestoda 

                      3.      Class Trematoda                         a.      Subclass Digenea

                                                              i.      – flat worms, closed digestive system(when present). Flagellated cells called flame cells move fluids through excretory canals. Nervous system: most show cephalization with anterior ganglion. Nervous sys = nerve ladder. Reproduction: most hermaphroditic, most have copulatory organs

1.      free living  flatworm. Have ocelli clusters that look like eyes. Locomote via cilia on the bottom surface, glide over mucus they secrete. Have a proboscis / pharanx for feeding.

1.      – tapeworms, all members parasites. Body plan includes scolex (head), neck and strobilus - which is composed of numerous proglottids. Each proglottid is a reproductive unit. Lack a gastrovascular cavity, feed by absorbing digested nutrients from the host. Includes Taenia saginata – human beef tapeworm, Dipyllidium caninum – dog tape worm

a.      mostly parasites on the gills of freshwater fishes, have hooks associated with posterior suckers.

1.                  Describe the relationship between the following: scolex, strobila, proglottid.

1.  
   1. Scolex – the head of a tape worm
   2. Strobila – the sum of all proglottids
   3. Proglottid – each proglottid is a reproductive unit capable of producing thousands of eggs.

1.                  Describe the life cycles of Opisthorchis, Schistosoma, Taenia, and Dipyllidium.

1.  
   1. Opisthorchis – Chinese liver fluke.         humanàsnailàfishàhuman

                                                              i.      Adults in human liver & intestine

                                                            ii.      Worms copulate – fertilize eggs and deposit them within the feces

                                                          iii.      Eggs hatch in water or consumed by snail. hatchling is called miracidium larva

                                                          iv.      Miracidium larva burrows into soft tissue of a snail, goes through asexual phases

                                                            v.      Miracidium develops into a sporocyst,  within the sporocyst redia develops

                                                          vi.      Within redia, cercaria larva develop which ruptures the redia and sporocyst

                                                        vii.      Burrows out of the snail, and encysts in the muscle of a fish – infective stage to humans

b.      Blood fluke                 humanàsnailàhuman

                                                              i.      Adults in blood vessels of intestine  -  female sits in groove of larger male and fused together

                                                            ii.      They migrate to vessels of rectum and lay eggs.

                                                          iii.      Sharp hooked eggs breaks the capillaries into rectum lumen – eggs in feces

                                                          iv.      Miracidium larva burrows into a snail – develops into sporocyst which has more sporocysts within (no redia) within the secondary sporocyst cercaria larvae develops

                                                            v.      Cercariae ruptures the primary and secondary sporocysts & burrows out of the snail

                                                          vi.      Swims to human and burrows through the skin into blood stream. Migrates to vessels of the intestine and mature

b.      human beef tapeworm             humanàcowàhuman

                                                              i.      Adults in intestines, deposits the eggs in feces

                                                            ii.      Eggs ingested by cows and hatch in their intestines

                                                          iii.      Larva burrows into bloodstream to muscle tissue

                                                          iv.      Forms a “bladderworm” larval stage in muscle

                                                            v.      Humans ingest poorly cooked meat – excyst in intestine

                 d.   Dipyllidium – dog tapeworm                   dogsàfleaàhuman (accidental)

                                                              i.      Adult worms in dog intestine, deposits the eggs in feces

                                                            ii.      Eggs ingested by flea larva – flea matures

                                                          iii.      Worm larva encysts in flea muscle

                                                          iv.      Dog eats flea while grooming

1.                  Name and describe the characteristics of the Protostomia, Deuterostomia, Ecdysozoa.

1.      Infrakingdom Protostomia – protostomates and animals with protostomate and deuterostomate features. Includes Superphylum Ecdysozoa, and Lophotrochozoa

a.       Superphylum Ecdysozoa – animals with an exoskeleton that must be shed for growth; ecdysis is hormonally controlled

1.      spiral cleavage

2.      determinate blastomeres  (at 32 cells)

3.      mouth forms from the blastopore of the gastrula

4.      they’re schizocoelous  (coelom develops from mesoderm)

5.      dorsal heart  (if present)

6.      ventral nerve chord

1.      radial cleavage

2.      indeterminate blastomeres  (at 32 cells)

3.      anus forms from the blastopore of the gastrula

4.      they’re enterocoelous  (coelom pinches off archenteron)

5.      ventral heart

6.      dorsal nerve chord

1.                  Describe the characteristics and relationships between the following:  Metazoa, Eumetazoa, Bilateria, Protostomia, Ecdysozoa, Nematoda, Gastrotricha, Rotifera, Acanthocephala, Nematomorpha, Onychophora, Tardigrada.

a.      Kingdom Metazoa

                          i.            Subkingdom Eumetazoa

1.      Branch Bilateria

a.        Infrakingdom Protostomia

                                                                                i.      Superphylum Ecdysozoa 

1.      Phylum Nematoda

2.      Phylum Gastrotricha

3.      Phylum Rotifera

4.      Phylum Acanthocephala 

5.      Phylum Nematomorpha

6.      PhylumOnychophora

7.      Phylum Tardigrada

8.      Phylum Arthropoda 

                                                                                i.      - animals with an exoskeleton that must be shed for growth; ecdysis is hormonally controlled

1.      round worms, open digestive tract, Pseudocoelomic, one of the most numerous animals in terms of sheer numbers, free living and parasites, dioecious. Includes: Trichinella, Enterobius (pinworm), Ascaris, Ancylostoma(hookworm)

1.      common freshwater predator. Have two large circular masses of cilia for feeding & locomotion. Have a mastax (to crush food)

1.      horsehair worms

1.      – walking worms. Tropical predator in leaf litter. Possible link between annelids and arthropods with traits from each

a.      have walking appendages, but lack jointed exoskeleton

b.      have antennae, and arthropod heart

c.       body is soft and segmented like annelids, but is chitinous like arthropods

1.      joint footed animals. Characteristics include:

a.      have a chitinous, jointed exoskeleton

b.      embryonic segmentation that persists through adulthood. Some segments repeat structures, other segments develop unique structures

c.       complex sensory organs, nervous system and muscular system

d.      non cellular chitinous exoskeleton that must be shed to grow

e.       Haemocoele present. Blood circulates in the coelom. Open circulatory sys

f.       Many exhibit complex social behavior

1.  
   1. normally parasites of pigs. Adults in intestine, deposits eggs in feces – eggs ingested by next or same host. Larva hatch  and escape the stomach and intestine via the bloodstream. Migrage to the airspace in lungs, crawl up trachea,  larva swallowed into stomach, mature in intestine

1.                  Be able to describe the characteristics and relationships of the unshaded Arthropod clades discussed in lecture and laboratory, and be able to identify examples of each.

1.  
   1. Phylum Arthropoda

                                                              i.      Subphylum Trilobita – trilobites, all members extinct

                                                            ii.      Subphylum Chelicerata – lack entennae. First two appendages modified; chelicerae (1^st), pedipalps (2^nd), book gills or book lungs, 4 pair of walking legs, 2 body regions; cephalothorax and abdomen

1.      Class Merostomata – horseshoe crabs. Ancient group harvested for their blood which contains LAL (Limulus Amoebocytes Lysate), used for sterilizing medical equipment. They have a long telson.

2.      Class Arachnida – spiders, ticks, scorpions, mites, harvestmen, vinegaroons.

                                                              i.      Subphylum Crustacea – 2 body parts; cephalothorax and abdomen. Cephalothorax usually protected by a shield structure called a carapace. 2 pair of antennae. 4 or more pair of walking legs

1.      Class Branchiopoda – “gill feet”  includes fairy shrimp and water fleas. Mostly fresh water. Many thoracic appendages for swimming and modified into gills

2.      Class Copepoda – very long first antennae held at right angles. Tail is biramus, many appendages are biramus.

3.      Class Cirripedia – barnacles. Free-swimming larva shows jointed chitinous exoskeleton. In adults, arthropod characteristics are shown in their cirri (feeding appendages)

4.      Class Malacostraca – Posses a rostrum, carapace, abdomen, and telson

1.      Class Malacostraca – Posses a rostrum, carapace, abdomen, and telson

a.      Order Decapoda – shrimp, lobster, crap. 5 pair of abdominal legs, and 5 pair of thoracic appendages for grasping or walking

b.      Order Isopoda – rolly-pollys. Carapace absent, dorsoventrally flattened. No Distinction from thoracic and abdominal segments. Marine parasites, and some terrestrial forms

c.       Order Amphipoda – similar to isopods, but laterally flattened. Shrimp like in appearance. First few segments fused with head. Some parasites, commensals.

d.      Order Euphausiacea – krill, shrimp-like inverts. Very pivotal & widely consumed organisms in the ocean food chains.

                                                              i.      Subphylum Uniramia

1.      Class Insecta / Hexapoda – 800,000 species.  3 body regions; head, thorax and abdomen One pair of antennae, 3 pair walking legs, compound and simple eyes. No lungs, they have spiracles which are openings to the inside, as insect moves air moves through the spiracles

a.      Order Anoplura – sucking lice

b.      Order Coleoptera – beetles, weevils

c.       Order Dermaptera – earwigs

d.      Order Diptera - flies, mosquitos   one pair of wings

e.       Order Hymenoptera – ants, bees, and wasps.   Two pair of wings

f.       Order Hemiptera – true bugs, bedbug.  Thoracic triangle, wings flat on body

g.      Order Homoptera – leafhoppers, cicadas    wings tent-like over abdomen

h.      Order Isoptera - termites

i.        Order Lepidoptera – butterflies and moths

j.        Order Odanata – damselflies, dragonflies   2 pair of wings held horizontally

k.      Order Orthoptera – crickets, roaches, grasshoppers, mantids

l.        Order Siphonaptera – fleas

                                                              i.      Subphylum Myriapoda

1.      Class Chilopoda – centipedes.  1 pair of legs per body segment, dorsoventrally flattened

2.      Class Diplopoda – millipedes.   2 pair of legs per body segment.  Circular cross section

1.                  What are characteristics and relationships of the Lophotrochozoa, Trochozoa, Lophophorata, Nemertea Mollusca, Annelida, Bryozoa, Brachiopoda, Pogonophora, Phoronida, Chaetagnatha?

2.      Phylum Mollusca

a.      Class Gastropoda

b.      Class Pelecypoda / Bivalvia 

c.       Class Polyplacophoran

d.      Class Scaphopoda

e.       Class Cephalopoda

1.      segmented worms. Triploblastic, eucoelomic, open digestive system, protostomate, good circulatory system.  They demonstrate metamerization – their body is divided into definite segments called somites or metameres, which may aid in body organization

Segments are divided internally by septa, segments posses bristles  called setae for locomotion. Most show trochophore larvae in reproduction

Reproduction

of oligochaeta

                                                                                                                                      i.      worms crawl past each other in opposite directions, sperm is released from the sperm ducts to the sperm receptacles of the other worm. Eggs and the stored sperm from the other worm are deposited into a mucous sac where fertilization occurs. Mucus sac produced by clitellum.

a.      leeches, have a posterior sucker for attachment. Feed with mouth, slice skin, suck blood. Reproduction similar to oligochaetes. 

1.      tube worms that are close relatives to Bryozoa and Bachiopods. Have a U-shaped intestine called horseshoe worms. Can be abundant in shallow seas/lagoons

1.                  Be familiar with all Lophotrochozoa clades, including relevant classes, and their characteristics.

1.                  Be familiar with the characteristics and evolutionary relationships  (and time of appearance) of the unshaded chordate clades discussed in lecture and laboratory.

                                                              i.      Phylum Chordata

1.      Subphylum Urochordata

2.      Subphylum Cephalochordata

1.  
   1. Oviparous – an animal that lays an amniote egg (birds, reptiles, monotremes)
   2. Ovoviviparous – an animal that produces an egg that develops and hatches within the mothers body. The young are born alive and the shell is then expelled  (white sharks, rattle snakes)

1.                  Compare how the Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes manage the problem of buoyancy.

1.  
   1. Chondrichthyes – are the cartilaginous fishes which includes sharks rays ratfish etc. The manage the buoyancy problem by producing oils within their extra large liver
   2. Osteichthyes -  are the boney fishes. They manage the buoyancy problem with a swim bladder. This is a gas filled bag to which gas is added or reabsorbed. This is more efficient than chondricthyes. Maintaining the right buoyancy allows the fish to remain at a certain depth without swimming or using energy.

1.                  Describe the characteristics, functions, and relationships between the following; capillaries, veins, venules, arteries, arterioles, atrium, ventricle, heart.

a.       have thick walls, carry blood from the heart, and split into arterioles,   High blood pressure

                          i.      Arterioles have thinner walls than arteries and split into capillaries

1.      capillaries very thin walls and are the site of gas / waste exchange. Drain into venules,   Low B pressure

                        ii.      Venules – drain blood into veins

a.       empty blood into atria of heart. Walls are relatively thin, blood pressure is very low

                                                              i.      The heart is composed of two parts. The atrium receives blood from the lungs and body, and the ventricle pumps blood to the lungs and body.

1.                  Describe blood flow in a two-chambered heart, a three-chambered heart, and a four-chambered heart.

1.  
   1. Two chambered heart – fishes, one ventricle and one atrium. The ventricle sneds blood to the gill capillaries,  the capillaries diffuse pressure,  from gill capillaries blood flows into larger vellels that go to the general circulation,  this blood is oxygenated but under low pressure which limits the volume of blood and thereby oxygen causing this animal to be ectothermic

1.                  What is the relationship between hearts, blood pressure, body size, and endothermy?

1.  
   1. Endothermic animals utilize physiological mechanisms to maintain core temperature. To be endothermic the animal will require a large volumes of oxygenated blood that flows at high pressure from the heart. A 4 chambered heart is capable of pumping blood at a high pressure, unlike the 2 or 3 chambered heart. Body size is more related with homeothermy than endothermy.

1.  
   1. has its own water and nutrient supply

                                                              i.          Embryonic membranes:

                                                            ii.      Amnion – encloses embryo and secretes amniotic fluid (protective cushioning)

                                                          iii.      Allantois – membrane is highly vascular, forms a surface for gas exchange through other egg membranes and eggshell. Nitrogenous waste collects in the allantoic sac

                                                          iv.      Yolk sac – encapsulates yolk, also vascular. Nutrients drawn into abdominal cavity of embryo

                                                            v.      Chorion – encloses all other embryonic membranes

                                                          vi.          Extraembryonic (maternal ) structures:

                                                        vii.      Shell – either leathery or hard calcareous layer for protection, permeable to air

                                                      viii.      Egg shell membranes – collagenous fibers, protective, air permeable

1.  
   1. embryonic membranes include:

                                                              i.      Amnion – encloses embryo and secretes amniotic fluid (protective cushioning)

                                                            ii.      Allantois – blood vessels develop, then degrades to mucoid connective tissue of umbilicus and placenta

                                                          iii.      Yolk sac – becomes support tissue in umbilical cord

                                                          iv.      Chorion – outermost layer of embryonic tissue that encapsulates the fetal capillaries, in fingerlike extensions called chorionic villi

                                                            v.           Maternal structures include:

                                                          vi.      Endometrium of uterus

                                                        vii.      Maternal arterioles and venules

                                                      viii.      Maternal poos, modifies capillaries form sinuses that bathe chorionic villi in maternal blood, maternal and fetal blood doesn’t mix. Chorion and allantoic tissue provide barrier

1.                  Describe the relationship between the following: Amphibians, Reptiles, Anapsids, Synapsids, Diapsids, Chelonia, Squamata, Archosauria, Crocodilians, Dinosaurs, Ornithischia, Saurischia, Theropods, Sauropods, Ankylosaurs, Hadrosaurs, Therapsids, Mammalia, Insectivora, Birds, Permian, Triassic, Permian Extinction, Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction, K-T Extinction.

1.  
   1. Permian – amphibians dominate the fossil record. Diapsids prospered but were miner players in fossil record. A major extinction took place at the end of the Permian.

1.  
   1. aka K-T extinction. Dinosaurs disappear, a group of Cephalopods called Ammonites die. About 70% of species die. A meteorite is suspected to be a major factor in the extinction event, but many factors contributed to the extinction. Mammals and birds survive the extinction and go through a massive radiation there after.

1.  
   1. frogs, toads, salamanders. Can exchange gas through skin (not keratinized), exhibit a metamorphosis in development where lungs develop. Dependent on water for reproduction. Lungs are inefficient, have a cloaca and excrete ammonia. Posses a three-chambered heart. Evolved from lobe finned fishes 370ma in late Dovonian period.

                                                              i.      Reptiles – evolved from amphibians 325 ma, late Mississippian of Carboniferous period

1.  
   1. ancestral reptiles, their skull lacks a postorbital foramin

                                                              i.      Synapsid – evolved from anapsids, have a single postorbital foramin

1.      Therapsids – mammal-like reptile, gives rise to mammals

a.      Class Mammalia 

                                                                                                                                      i.      Subclass Eutherians 

1.      Order Insectivora 

2.      Order Lagomorpha

3.      Order Rodentia

4.      OrderCetacea

                                                                                                                                      i.      have a true placenta

1.      Order Insectivora – moles and shrews

2.      Order Lagomorpha – rabbits and hares. Rabbits have altricial young (helpless), hares have precocious young (eyes open able to walk / run)

3.      Order Rodentia – chipmunks, squirrels, mice, rats etc.

4.      OrderCetacea – whales

1.      dogs cats, bears, etc. includes the families:

a.       Suborder Pinnipedia - fins

b.      Suborder Fissipedia - legs

b.      Family Felidae – cats

c.       Family Canidae – dogs

d.      Family Ursidae – bears

e.       Family Mustelidae – weasels, otters, badgers, etc

a.      - Bird-hipped dinosaur. The pubis doesn’t meet ventrally (adaptation for egg laying), includes: Ankylosaurs (armored dino’s), Hadrosaurs (duck billed dino’s), Stegasaurs, Iguanodons, Ceratopsids

1.  
   1. endothermic homeotherms, Oviparous, excrete uric acid, have keratinized skin with feathers which are modified scales. They posses a keeled sternum for attachment of massive pectoral muscles. Have a 4 chambered heart, and a very efficient respiratory system.

1.                  The irony is that theyflourished following a major extinction (Permian), only to fall victim themselves to another extinction event (K-T)

1.                  Modern birds have the following characteristics

1.  
   1. Endothermic homeotherms
   2. Have keratinized skin with feathers (modified scales), posses keeled sternum, oviparous (amniote egg), posses a cloaca, males have a copulatory organ, excrete uric acid. Posses a 4 chambered heart.

                                                              i.      This one way airflow allows the lung capillaries to carry blood in the opposite direction.

1.                  The crop functions like our stomach.  Their stomach is highly reduced and part of which forms the gizzard, which grinds food. (birds lack teeth and need a way to break food down.

1.                  Describe the evolutionary relationship between the Monotremes, Marsupials, and Eutherians, and how their radiation and distribution was influenced by plate tectonics.

Monotremes

Marsupials

Eutherians

1.  
   1. poorly developed placenta, bear live young. The mammillae is within a pouch where the young develop. The evolved from the monotremes.

1.  
   1. advanced placenta, no pouch. They evolved from primitive eutherians 20ma after the split up of Pangaea. The evolved on the northern supercontinent which lost and regained Africa.

                                                              i.      the ancestral mammals  the Monotremes gave rise to the marsupials on the super continent Pangaea. After Pangaea began to split up, the Marsupials gave rise to the eutherians on the northern super continent. The eutherians radiated throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America out competing and displacing the Monotremes and Marsupials (with a few exceptions). Australia was free of the Eutherians and the Marsupials and Monotremes still exist there.  South America eventually formed a land bridge to North America and the advanced placentals quickly replaced most of it’s Monotremes and Marsupials.

52.              Describe the stages of a typical population cycle?

a)                  Lag phase – most populations exhibit a period of relatively slow growth.

b)                  Once growth begins it can have certain characteristics:

i)                    Linear growth – constant numerical growth. Doubling occurs slowly

ii)                  Exponential growth – result of a growing numerical increase. Doubling occurs rapidly. Populations grow exponentially when there are no limits on growth.

c)                  Environmental resistance slows exponential growth

d)                 Limiting factors set the carrying capacity (the number of individuals the environment can support).

52.              How is exponential growth different than linear growth?

a)                  Exponential growth - result of a growing numerical increase. Doubling occurs rapidly: 2,4,8,16,32,64...

b)                  Linear growth - constant numerical growth. Doubling occurs slowly: 2,4,6,8,10,12…

52.              Describe the relationship of the following: carrying capacity, limiting factors, density dependent factors, density independent factors, environmental resistance, and biotic potential.

a)                  – inhibit the rate of growth and determine the carrying capacity of the population. Includes two types

i)                    Density dependent limiting factors – these are factors that will limit growth more severely as the population increases in numbers or concentration. Examples include: food, social factors, disease

ii)                  Density independent limiting factors – factors that effect population in a consistent way whether there are few or many individuals. Examples include: weather, climate, geology, geography

a)                  slows exponential growth

a)                  this is the potential maximum growth rate. This is rarely achieved in nature because limiting factors produce environmental resistance and slows the growth of the population. 

52.              How does a population typically behave if resources are renewable, and if resources are non-renewable?

a)                  Renewable – if the environmental resources are renewable, the population may stabilize.

b)                  Non-renewable – if the environmental resources are not renewable, the population may crash

52.              What is earth’s human carrying capacity and how is it related to quality of life?

a)                  Most popular estimates of human carrying capacity is 10-12 billion.  However at a high standard of living like we enjoy in the US, estimates range from <1 billion – 1.2 billion.  When living conditions are really low, high estimates of our carrying capacity are over 45 billion if certain conditions are met such as:

i)                    Cultivating all arable land,  mass conversion to nuclear power, expansion of mining

52.              Is human population static, showing linear growth, or exponential growth?  Explain.

a)                  Human population is showing exponential growth. Our APGR is currently 1.2% per year. This means that each year the population has grown more than the year before.  A J-shaped curve on a chart.

a)                  BR =   (50,000/1,000,000) x 1000 = 50

b)                  DR =   (10,000/1,000,000) x 1000 = 10

c)                  APGR =  (50 – 10) /10 = 4.0%

d)                 DT = 70 / 4.0 = 17.5 years

e)                  NMR = ((5000-20,000) / 1,000,000) x 1000 = -15

f)                   True Growth Rate =  4.0 + (-15 / 10) = -6%

g)                  True Doubling Time = 70 / -6 =  Will never double in these conditions.

52.              ? More babies die to starvation or disease in LDC’s

a)                  LDC – Less developed country

b)                  MCD – More developed country

52.              Compare APGR, DT, TFR, and age structure diagrams for MDC’s and LDC’s.

52.              What are some philosophical and ethical considerations regarding human population control?

a)                  Can we decide on optimum populations, as quality of life is extremely subjective?

b)                  What is a tolerable population density?

c)                  Will Americans tolerate changes in diet and food availability?

d)                 What are acceptable decreases in energy availability?

e)                  What are acceptable methods to reduce birth rate?

52.              ?  Methods of birth control includes:

Abstinence, rhythm method (avoiding intercourse around time of ovulation), Barrier methods (diaphragm, sponge condoms),  Hormonal methods (drugs, including RU-486), Spermacides, Sterilization (tubal ligation or vasectomy), Abortion.                     Only abstinence and abortion are 100% effective

52.              RU-486 is a method of birth control. It competes with progesterone for binding sites on placental cell membranes.  Progesterone is a hormone, which keeps placental cells alive when it binds to progesterone receptors. RU-486 will cause the death of placental cells if it binds to the progesterone receptors instead of progesterone.

52.              What can be done to slow population growth?

a)                  Women are the key. Educating women have fewer children statistically, because they typically want to get through school and begin their career before having children

i)                    Economic development – more developed countries (MDC’s) typically have less children. Because the women become educated and delay childbirth

ii)                  Empowerment of women

iii)                Family planning – families that are planned are smaller than those that are not.

iv)                Reproductive laws – such as China’s single child policy

52.              How is infectious disease different from non-infectious disease?

a)                  Infectious disease – a biological organism called the agent of disease causes infectious disease.

b)                  Non-infectious disease – lack an agent of transmission. Cancer, hemophilia, diabetes, etc

52.              What are examples of agents of disease? 

a)                  Viral - HIV, measles, smallpox, flu, common cold. Etc.

b)                  Bacterial – forms of dysentery, Chagas’ disease, Trichomonaisis etc

c)                  Fungal – yeast infections, ringworm etc

d)                 Parasitic worms – tapeworms, roundworms, flukes, etc

52.              Agents are transmitted from one host to another by an organism. These include: mosquitoes, ticks, flies, and most other biting insects.

52.              Describe the difference between endemic, epidemic, and pandemic disease.

a)                  endemic – present in a population in low numbers, maintained by carriers who are not affected

b)                  epidemic – outbreaks in large numbers, in a virulent form

c)                  pandemic – spreads throughout the world

52.              Describe the difference between chronic and acute disease.

a)                  Acute – intense and have short duration

52.              Give examples of non-infectious diseases, as well as examples of causes of non-infectious diseases.

a)                  Non-infectious diseases - Cancer, hemophilia, diabetes, muscular dystrophy etc

b)                  Causes of non-infectious diseases – chemicals, hereditary, radiation, combinations of heredity and environmental factors

52.              These are the non living parts of an ecosystem which includes:

a)                  Atmosphere – the gaseous earth, 78% nitrogen and  21% O₂. we live in the troposphere

b)                  Hydrosphere – the aqueous earth, includes rivers, lakes, oceans, water vapor, ice and subterranean water

c)                  Lithosphere – the rocky earth, includes rocks, soil, sediment, dust etc.

d)                 Energy – many forms, solar, chemical, mechanical, etc.

52.              These are the living parts of an ecosystem which includes:

a)                  Organism – a single living thing

b)                  Population – composed of organisms within a species

c)                  Natural community – the interacting collection of populations in a given place and time

52.              A niche is an organism’s job in the ecosystem. There is only so many niches available in an ecosystem, and no two organisms may occupy the same niche within that ecosystem.

52.              Describe eutrophic, mesotrophic, and oligotrophic lakes.

a)                  Eutrophic – have an abundance of nutrients making for lots of productivity.

b)                  Mesotrophic – lakes that are intermediate in nutrients

c)                  Oligotrophic – lakes that have minimal nutrients examples would include alpine lakes

52.              Too many nutrients can lead to eutrophication

a)                  A temporary increase in nutrients can lead to an algal bloom

b)                  Consumer populations explode

c)                  Algae may overshoot the carrying capacity  which leads to an algal crash

d)                 Decomposers explode and deplete the lake of oxygen which leads to a massive fish crash which leads to a further bloom of the decomposers

e)                  Anaerobic bacteria blooms, and the lake is considered dead.

52.              ( Low  -  Flow) These systems include flowing water

a)                  Includes, rivers and streams.

52.              Vegetation is influenced by certain limiting factors such as:

a)                  Temperature, Water availability, Soil type, General climate

52.              Describe general characteristics, including diversity and soil quality, of the following biomes: deciduous forests, coniferous forests, chaparral, temperate grasslands, tropical grasslands (savannah), desert, tundra, tropical rain forest, riparian habitats, wetlands.

a)                  Deciduous forest 

b)                  Coniferous forest 

c)                  Chaparral

d)                  Temperate grasslands 

a)                  Tropical grasslands

a)                  Deciduous forest

a)                  broad leaf forest, drops leaves in winter. Summers are hot and humid. Moderate diversity, soil quality is excellent

a)                  evergreen forest, summers are temperate; winters are cold, diversity low to moderate, fire adapted, soil quality is poor

a)                  scrub forest typical of SoCal,  summers hot/dry; winters moderate and wetter, diversity low to moderate, fire adapted, soil quality is poor

a)                  summers hot/humid; winters cold, diversity moderate to high, fire adapted, soil quality is excellent

a)                  permafrost,  short windy summers, cold windy winters, plants very low to ground with minimal roots, diversity is low, soil quality is poor

52.              Describe the first and second laws of energy.

a)                  1^st Law of Energy (thermodynamics) – energy is neither created nor destroyed, buut merely changes form

b)                  2^nd Law of Energy (thermodynamics) – some energy dissipates to the surroundings as heat as it flows or changes form

52.              It’s considered a nuclear reaction because it leads to a change in the nucleus of an atom instead of the electron configuration (chemical rxn)

52.              The mass of the Helium nucleus is less than the Hydrogen isotopes that fused to form it because some mass is converted to energy

52.              Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet, Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red, Infra red, Microwaves, Radio waves

52.              What is the overall equation for photosynthesis?

6CO₂  +  6H₂O  +  686Kcal   à   C₆H₁₂O₆  +  6O₂

_{carbon dioxid         water                    solar energy                          glucose                      oxygen}

52.              Plants can use solar energy and convert it into chemical energy in the process of photosynthesis

52.              With energy from the sun, plants create organic molecules with carbon dioxide and water, with oxygen as a bi-product

52.              Label the members of the following food chain as producers, and the appropriate consumer, i.e. primary, secondary, tertiary, etc: flower nectar is eaten by a butterfly, which is eaten by a frog, which is eaten by a snake, which is eaten by a red tailed hawk.

a)                  Flower – producer

i)                    Butterfly – primary consumer

a)                  Frog – secondary consumer

(1)               Snake – tertiary consumer

(a)                Red tailed hawk – quaternary consumer

52.              The frog, snake, and hawk, are higher order consumers.  Anything past the primary consumer is a higher order consumer.

52.              Describe what the terms herbivore, carnivore, and omnivore mean, and give examples of each.

a)                  Herbivore – animals that primarily eat plants such as:  cows, horses, deer, rabbits

b)                  Carnivores – animals that primarily eat other animals such as:  cats, snakes, wolves

c)                  Omnivores – animals that have a relatively balanced diet of plants and animals such as: people

52.              An energy pyramid is a representation of the energy distribution in an ecosystem. They pyramid is widest at the bottom where the producers are, and tapers towards the top where the higher order consumers are.

How much energy in an ecosystem goes from one trophic level to the next, and what happens to the rest of the energy?

              10% goes to the next level.  90% dissipates to the surroundings

52.              we would receive 1/10^th of the energy from the grain

52.              There is a Carbon cycle.  Carbon is absorbed in photosynthesis by producers and passed to consumers which releases the carbon back to the atmosphere after they die, allowing the cycle to start over again.

52.              Describe the following cycles: phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon/oxygen, water.

a)                  Phosphorus cycle: 

i)                    phosphorus within sediments are brought to the surface by uplift or volcanic activity

ii)                  the phosphates within rocks break up and become soil over time

iii)                phosphates in the soil then either cycle through plants animals and detritivores, or it gets washed into water where it will either cycle through plants and animals or sink back into the earths sediments.

i)                    Atmospheric Nitrogen can enter the soil via lightning or nitrogen fixing bacteria, or enter plants via nitrogen fixing bacteria within the plants.

ii)                  See the picture (describing it would be too confusing) page 25

a)                  Carbon / Oxygen cycle: