Term
| Components of the IDEAL problem solving framework |
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Definition
Identify the Problem
Define and represent the problem
Explore possible strategies
Act on the strategies
Look back and evaluate results |
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Term
| - Problem Representation / Two trains |
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Definition
| there are often multiple ways to solve a problem, the way that problem is represented can effect what way you solve it, often one representation is far more simple than the other. Representation 1 – distance at each stage, Representation 2 – Time * Speed = Distance |
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Definition
| people are biased by their experience in previous strategies, they ignore simple ways to solve problems, in favor of familiar ones (the method they had to use in earlier trails. (Water Jug Problem) |
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Definition
| representing objects in terms of typical use and not seeing novel uses. |
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Definition
| learn to be a resource, reach a decision, structure the process |
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Term
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Definition
| Episodic, Semantic, Procedural |
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Term
| -Availability Vs. Accessibility |
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Definition
| available – the information is in memory, accessible – you can access the information at that particular point in time |
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Definition
Recognition Test, Cued Recall, Free Recall more specific less specific
- Working memory: encoding new info, retrieving and process info in LTM. |
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| - Components of Working Memory (Baddeley): |
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Definition
| Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, episodic buffer |
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Definition
| harder to make good decisions and avoid temptation when working memory is full (twice as likely to eat cake a high memory load condition) |
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| - Proactive Interference: |
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Definition
| earlier learning interferes with later learning, Retroactive: later lerning interferes with earlier learning |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory reconsolidation is the process of previously consolidated memories being recalled and actively consolidated.[2] It is a distinct process that serves to maintain, strengthen and modify memories that are already stored in the long-term memory. |
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Term
| - Constructive to Remember: |
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Definition
| pulls bits and pieces together, creates a full representation, is never a simple reproduction of an experience – involved emotions, perspective, etc |
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Term
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Definition
| making attribution about the origins of memories, knowledge, and beliefs. It is a decision, not just a tag. You have to compare the characteristics of your memory to the general characteristics of different sources |
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Definition
| recall is best when encoding and retrieval conditions are matched (scuba, land study, same room vs. different room study) |
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Definition
| (indirect test) instructions are to complete a task, not to retrieve information from memory – stem completion, free association, perceptual indentification |
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Definition
| direct test) instructions ask participants to retrieve information from memory from a specific event –recognition, cued and free recall |
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Definition
| general structure of knowledge of objects, people, or situations, used to form expectation and inferences. People are more likely to remember things that are schema typical, less likely to remember moderately atypical information, and MOST likely to remember extremely atypical information. |
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Term
| - Fudamental Cognitive Biases |
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Definition
| : heuristics are rule sof themb that are correct more of the time, however they are sometimes used to situations where they are not appropriate, leading to poor decision. People try to use prior knowledge, or follow patterns that aren’t there, based on heurists – but they aren’t always right. (automatic contextualization, tendency to see patterns that aren’t there, tendency toward a narrative mode of thought) |
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Term
| -Conclusion of Hastoff & Cantril: Princton vs. Dartmouth study |
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Definition
| people focused more on faults the other team had, then their own team. – people do not have different attitudes concerning the same thing, the “thing” is simply is NOT the same of different people” |
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Definition
| a poll showed that people who though the media was baised, almost always thought it was baised against the candidate they supported. |
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Definition
| when your ideas of yourself do not match your actions. You have to find some way to either excuse your actions, or change your beliefs. Can be eliminated by reducing the importance of the conflicting beliefs, acquiring new beliefs, removing conflicting attitude or behavior |
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Definition
| people who were paid only a dollar to lie, subconsciously thought that they would not have lied for only a dollar, so put that they actual liked the study. People who were paid $20, knew it made sense to do it for that much, and still hated the study |
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Definition
| how people infer their beliefs from watching themselves behave. People discover their beliefs by thinking about how they behave. Internal cues are weak, we are in the same position as an outside observer when trying to decision our beliefs |
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Definition
| the prosept of dissonance influenes a decision you will make. (avoiding being sexist) |
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Term
| -Post-decisional dissonance: |
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Definition
| follows a choice you have made (betting on a horse race) |
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Definition
| “oh yeah I knew that” People were asked to estimate how likely they thought a side would win in a war, after being told “who won”, considering reasons why either thing could have happened will reduce hindsight bias |
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Term
| -Primacy and recency effect: often |
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Definition
| often the first thing you hear can influence how you view/remember the rest of the information given, also often the last thing heard is what sticks with you the most. Primacy is more likely to influence your opinion, but recent information is more likely to be remembered |
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Definition
| when people are rated positively in one way, it effects how they are perceived in other ways (pretty people are probably more intelligent and more fun than other people, etc) |
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Definition
| the order questions are presented can often change the answers to the questions. Often the order of answers can have an effect as well (communist vs. America reporters) |
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Definition
| people offer an opinion (bc of a survey or whatever) for which they have no real opinion |
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Definition
| a discrepancy between two related attitudes |
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Definition
| favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone exhibited in ones beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior |
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Definition
| giving the lecture did not change people’s actions whatsoever |
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Term
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Definition
| attitudes and behavior do not correlate much at all |
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Term
| When might attitudes guide behavior |
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Definition
| more likely if attitude is made salient, if people consider their attitudes and make themselves self conscious of it. |
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Term
| -How are answers to questions affected by type and number of alternative answers: |
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Definition
| adding a middle option can give useful information, but can be used as safe answer. (poll about Vietnam: faster vs slower? And faster, slower, or the same? Has huge differences) Wording of questions can have an effect as well. |
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Term
| -Social Desirable Responding |
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Definition
| even if the answers are inconstant, people choose answers that sound better . Knowing the source of a question can also affect the answer. If from a doctor vs psychologist – people may give answer they think either would want. |
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Term
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Definition
| the decision makers conception of the acts, outcomes, and contingencies associated with the choice. People tend to risk more, when gains are at steak. People want to protect gains, but are willing to risk losses, even if its more. Asian disease – people would rather FOR SURE save a small number of lives, then use Plan B – which would MAYBE save more lives, but might lose some. PEOPLE ARE MORE RISK-AVERSE WHEN GAINS ARE SURE, BUT MORE RISK SEEKING WHEN FRAMED IN LOSSES OR MORTALITY. |
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Term
| -Psychological Accounting: |
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Definition
| whether an outcome is framed in terms of the direct consequences of an act, or whether it is evaluated with respect to a previous balance. People reason differently and make different choices (even for equivalent outcomes) based on how they think of the loss or gain. |
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Term
| - Expected Utility Theory |
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Definition
| the value or utility of money declines with the amount won (or already possessed) When people violate principals of rational decision making, expected utility is not maximized. ( A normative theory of decision making – how decisions should be made. Expected value = cost/benefit x probability) |
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| -Axioms of rational decision making: Ordering |
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Definition
| : Ordering of alternatives, dominance, cancellation, transitivity, continuity, invariance |
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Definition
| – if two outcomes have the same probability or value, that factor should be ignored in a decision between them. |
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Term
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Definition
| – if you ADD a feature to a choice, but it is worth the same in each alternative, it should not affect a person’s preference, the paradox is that the addition feature can change the preference or value |
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Term
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Definition
| the order things are compared can often change who that winner would be. (the committee problem) |
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Definition
| when people choose between two bets, they prefer the onces with the highest probability of winning, but when asked to set a price of the alternatives they prefer the one with the highest potential payoff. |
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Definition
| making a decision based on what satisfies your most important needs, not what is the better decision. People don’t optimize. |
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Definition
| key aspect is value (net gain from a reference point). People are more conservative with gains, and more risky in light of potential loss. Tend of overweight small probabilities and underweight moderate and large probabilities. |
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Term
| Implications of Prospect Theory |
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Definition
| Endowment effect (people value what they have more than the value they would place on it if they did not own it.) |
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Term
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Definition
| “a reduction of the probability of an outcome by contact factor has more impact than a factor that was inicially certain than when it was merely probable”. People will pay more to remove the last bullet in a gun, then any other bullet before it. Still the same amount of risk reduction – but it is valued higher. |
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Term
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Definition
| counterfactual reasoning (imagine different outcomes), judging decision based on what hypothetically could have happened if another decision had been made. People who feel they were “soooo close” feel worse, than someone who was really far away from their goal. (1 min late, vs. 3 hours late) |
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Term
| Compenstory strategies for multi-attribute choices: |
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Definition
| linear model (each attribute gets a value of importance, total scores are compared), additive difference model (only differences are compared), ideal point model (decision maker has ideal in mind, and evaluates each choice against that ideal) |
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Term
| -Noncompensatory stragegies |
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Definition
~Conjuctive rule [and] (eliminate any alternatives that fall outside a predefined boundary. Must have this, this, AND this, or I will not consider it.)
~Disjunctive rule[or] (each alternative is judged by its best attribute, regardless of from poor other areas are. Must have a, or b, or c.)
~Lexicographic (pick the most important dimension, if more than one of the alternatives is the same in that dimension, go to the second dimension, etc)
~ Elimination-by-spects (each dimension of comparison is selected with a probability proportional to its importance. Eliminate the worst until left with the best. Works off of thresholds of a certain trait, eliminate everything under it. |
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Definition
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Definition
| systematic tendencies toward a particular outcome in people’s thought processes. |
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| Representative Heuristic: |
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Definition
| people judge probabilities by the degree to which A is representative of B (or the degree it resembles B. How much something resembles prior knowledge. (bank teller vs. feminist bank teller) |
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Term
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Definition
| a small sample random sample is more representative of other groups and the population more closely than statistical sampling theory would predict , “gamblers fallacy” |
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Term
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Definition
| when given descriptive information, even when not about the issue, will make a decision NOT based on the base rate. Engineering vs lawyer problem |
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Term
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Definition
| high or low scores tend to be followed by scores closer to the mean. |
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Term
| - Ways to improve Decision Making: |
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Definition
| don't be Misled by Highly Detailed Scenarios, Whever Psosible, Pay Attention to Base Rates, Remember that Chance is not Self-Correcting, Don’t Misinterpret Regression Toward Mean |
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Term
| - Avialability Heuristic: |
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Definition
| people assess the frequency of a probability of an event by the ease with which instances or occurences can be brought to mind. What is easier for us to imagine, is probably more likely to happen (imaginablity, vididness, and retrieval – the ability to remember examples – affect this). However effects of vividness have been shown to be weak. |
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Term
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Definition
| – people often overestimate the likely hood of something to happen |
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Term
| Judging the probablility of positive vs negative outcomes |
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Definition
| positive outcomes are judged more likely than negative ones. (i.e., people think they will be successful, but not that they will die of cancer or in a car accident) |
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Term
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Definition
| : the original starting value of a question. Where you start will determine where you go. “changing the starting point or anchor affects people judgments” (Is the percentage of African nations in the UN more or less than whatever) |
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Term
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Definition
| real estate prices, a higher vs. lower starting value would influence how much people were willing to pay. |
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Term
| - “ask and you shall receive”: |
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Definition
| trail experiment, gave people information on a case and told them to “give” the person what money they deserved, it was affected by how much the lawyer asked for. |
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Term
| Markey study say about memory of the past |
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Definition
| - people tend to believe that their previous attitudes were still consistent with their current attitudes. It affected their memory of the past. |
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Term
| Rare events as proof of conspiracy? |
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Definition
| – George Bryson, checked for mail and someone with his name has stayed in that room the day before. |
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Term
| - Do people see patterns in random events?: |
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Definition
| they did think the pattern was random, but if their previous choice was right, they were far more likely to choose it again, even if the pattern was totally different. |
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Term
| -How accurate are people at judging correlations |
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Definition
| People are driven almost completely by the confirmation bias |
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Term
| -Judgements of correlations? Weather/Arthritis |
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Definition
| asked for people to keep up with their arthritis pain on a day to day basic, and also collected weather information. NO correlation exists between these two things. |
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Term
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Definition
| people who had chosen their own lottery tickets, or that had familiar letters, were more likely to keep it, then those who had been given a random ticket. Gave them the illusion of control |
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Term
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Definition
| – attribute causal explanations for way certain things happened. Broken down into the person, the entity (some enduring feature of the situation), the time (unique circumstances) |
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Term
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Definition
| information that is salient, or available or vivid, tends to have more impact than information that is not. The more SALIENT something is the more likely it will appear causal. If someone is behind a particular person, and can see the other person – they may think the person they were looking at has the most influence on the conversation. |
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Term
| Fundamental attribution error: |
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Definition
| the overreadiness to explain behavior in terms of dispositional factors. When explaining OTHER peoples behaviors, they overestimate the extent to which people’s behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors, and less to situation factors. But when thinking about yourself – your negative accounts are due to a situational factor |
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Term
| Common attributional biases? |
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Definition
~Self serving bias: accept responsibility or success, not failure
~Egocentric bias: accept more responsibility for joint outcomes than other other contributors attribute to you (more desirable and undesirable)
~Positivity effect: tendency to attribute positive behaviors to dispositions and negative behaviors to situational |
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Term
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Definition
| ?: Pay attention to consensus information, ask yourself how you would behave in you were in the situation, look beyond salient explanations |
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Definition
| people are more likely to improve with observers if the task is simple, or if they are well-learned in the task, if the task is complex or the person is not very good – they will get worse. |
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Term
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Definition
| people do not try as hard in a group as they would by themselves. If there is individual accountability, or if highly motivated, social loafing may go down. |
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Term
| “diffusion of respnsiblity”: |
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Definition
| the more people, the less responsibility, “someone else will do it”. Kitty Genovese. |
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Definition
| people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing them with others in society |
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Term
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Definition
| conformity study, which line is longer? Often when a minority did assert the correct answer, had a great influence on the student to say the answer they believed was correct |
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Term
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Definition
| a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgement that results from in group pressures. |
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