K.P. Cross

- program for adult learners should capitalize on life experience

- programs should be adapted to age limitations (sight, hearing, mobility)

- programs should challenge participants into advanced stages of personal development

- participants should have as much choice as possible in the availability and organization of the program.  

situational characteristics - part-time/full time, voluntary/compulsory

M. Knowles

- adults are self-directed, like to be involved in planning and evaluation of instruction

- learning should be oriented to problem-solving rather than content

- adults learn experientially

- adults learn best when topic is of immediate value

C. Rogers

- addresses needs and wants of learner

- positive learning environment, external threats at a minimum

- self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive

- self-evaluation is primary method of assessment

G.A. Miller

- short-term memory is limited to seven (plus or minus 2) chunks

- planning is a fundamental cognitive process

(TOTE:  Test-Operate-Test-Exit)

- behavior is hierarchically organized

H. Gardner

- 7 different forms of intelligence:

-linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal

- students should be encouraged to use their preferred intelligence in learning

- instruction should appeal to multiple intelligences

- assessment should measure multiple intelligences

R. Schank

- intended to explain language processing and higher thinking skills

- all memory is episodic and organized in terms of scripts

J. Lave

- knowledge is best acquire within a context rather than in abstract space

- learning requires social interaction and collaboration

A. Bandura

- observational learning is achieved by organizing and rehearsing modeled behavior symbolically, then enacting it overtly.  Coding behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simple observation.

- individual is more likely to adopt behavior if it results in favorable outcome.

- individual is more likely to adopt behavior if model is similar to observer.

B. Weiner

- explains how individuals interpret events

- attribution is 3 stage process:

behavior is observed, determined deliberate, attributed to external or internal causes.

- achievement attributed to:

effort, ability, difficulty, luck

causal dimensions of behavior:

locus of control, stability, controllability 

L. Festinger

- individuals seek consistency within their beliefs

- when there is inconsistency in beliefs or attitudes, something must change to resolve dissonance

- dissonance can be resolved by reducing importance of beliefs, acquiring new ones, or removing conflicting attitude or behavior

J. Bruner

- learning is an active process where learners construct ideas/knowledge based on current knowledge

- instructor should encourage students to discover principles on their own

- instruction should integrate experiences and context that make student willing and able to learn (readiness)

- instruction must be organized so it is easily grasped (spiral organization)

- instruction should facilitate extrapolation (going beyond information given)

F. Marton & N. Entwistle

- focused on learning in higher education

- researchers should seek understanding of learning of examining students' experiences

- research about learning needs to occur in a naturalistic setting involving actual content and settings within which people learn