1. Social contract

2. Free will

3. Punishment as deterrence

4. Punishment must fit the crime

Death

Majesty

Justice

Mercy

1. Idealistic - are people really equal before the law?

2. Difficult to account for re-offending

3. Is society characterised by consensus or conflict?

4. Are all offenders alike?

5. Circumstancial factors can influence rationality

1. Causes

2. Prediction

3. Control

1. Ceseare Lombroso

2. Enrico Ferri

3. Raffaele Garofalo

1. Rejects metaphysical/speculative approaches

2. The scientific method

3. The doctrine of determinism/denial of free will

4. Treatment not punishment

1. Physical characteristics and the 'born' criminal

2. Lower IQ and moral defectiveness

3. Body types and criminality (Sheldon)

4. Heredity & Genetics

5. XYY chromosomes

6. Twin Studies

1. Psychoanalytical Theory - Sigmund Freud

2. Personality Theory - Hans Eysenck

Individual argues the causes and sources of crime are to be found in the individual.

Sociological stresses the importance of social factors in the explaination of crime or factors external to the individual.

Both are concerned in identifying the causes of crime, but differ in what they think these causes are.

Both also agree that the causes of crime are beyond the control of the individual.

1. Attachment

2. Involvement

3. Commitment

4. Belief

1. Denial of meaning/ authenticity

2. Denial of freedom and choice (agency)

1. Who defines a certain behaviour as criminal?

2. Who has the power to do so?

3. Who controls the process of its application?

Note: are concerned with processes not causes and embrance a conflict perspective on society.

1. group or individual performs a particular act.

2. anotheer group or individual with different values/norms labels it criminal or deviant.

Crime is a inevitable result of capitalism and an inherant system of exploitation and inequalities.

Liberal - critical of the overwhelming focus on male criminality.

Radical - primary focus on men's historical, traditional and contemporary oppression of women and given male dominance of justice system, women oppressed by this system.

Socialist - focuses on the interrelationship between capitalism and patriarchy or male domination.

1. See crime as a significant issue

2. Are realistic about what can be done

3. See police as important, but also committed to a multi-agency approach to prevention

4. Emphasis a need for research to identify most cost effective ways of preventing crime

1. Egalitarianism (equality, court of law to decide on punishment)

2. The rejection of individualised punishment

3. The concept of proportionality

4. The social contract

5. Utilitarianism (for the greater good for the greatest number)

6. The concept of free will

7. Certainty & swiftness of punishment

8. The causes of crime

1. Not all have an equal ability to reason thus free will

2. Do not all have equal levels of control

Devised by Cornish & Clarke (1986). It argues that individuals freely choose their conduct based on utilitarian calculation of costs and benefits. The criminal, like every other individual according to the classicist doctrine is a 'rational utility maximiser'. In other words, to act rationally is to act in ones best interests, therefore the criminal acts rationally when they commit crime.

Deterrence will be achieved when the mental processes of the offender, when his or her calculation of costs and benefits can be affected.

Classicism: what ought to be?

Posivitism: facts, what is?

1. The unity of the scientific method

2. The doctrine of determinism (criminals propelled into crime by factors beyond their control)

3. Focus on the actor not the act

4. Treatment not punishment

5. Differentiating between criminals and non-criminals (differnce between criminals and non criminals that could be biological, psychological or social)

6. Pathology and deficiency (crime is the result of social or biological deficiencies)

1)      The Sociology of Law

2)      Theories of crime causation / Criminogenesis

3)      Social and political responses to crime

1)      Legal

2)      Sociological

3)      Political

The first systematic and scientific study of crime.

It marked a convergence or alliance of two different areas of activity:

criminal justice system and the new statistical movement.

Concerned with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminology through science and scientific methods.

1)      that criminals are physically or psychologically different

2)      that a criminal pre-disposition can be and is inherited 

3)      only science and scientific and/or empirical research methods produce valid knowledge about crime. 

A genetic/evolutionary throwback or criminals less evolved.

Degeneracy is an inherited mutation. First to theorise chemical, biological markers and physical stigma.

1)      Endomorhpic: Soft and round (enDOUGH soft and round)

2)      Ectomorhpic: Fragile and thin (ecTo (Thin))

3)      Mesomorphic: Muscular ( M for muscles)

4)      Mixed

Influenced by Emile Durkheim, sees crime as normal and good. Seeks the causes of crime within the social or cultural enviroment.

–Moral consciousness. Crime reveals the collective sentiments of society by offending them. Crime is normal and inevitable

The situation where members of society are no longer regulated and integrated via the ‘collective conscience’.

Society places limits upon the goals, desires and aspirations of its members. An anomic condition is generated when society can no longer apply and maintain these limits.

‘Anomic conditions’ undermine/weaken the social control function of society and parameters or limits can no longer be established and maintained

What are theories under Individual Positivism (Biological)?

1)      Atavism (Lombroso, influenced by Darwin)

2)      Physical stigmata (Lombroso – physically born criminal)

3)      Body types and crime (Sheldon)

4)      XXY (Witkin et al)

5)      Twins (Mednick and Volavka, Raine)

6)      Adopted criminality (Mednick, Gabriella and Hutchings, Bohman, Cloninger, Sigvardsson and Knorring)

7)      Biochemical imbalances (Coleman and Norris)

8)      Link between nutrition and aggression (Cole and Smith, Walsh)

What did Garofalo do?

Agree that criminals had physical differences, but did not believe sufficant evidence had been provided

What did Ferri do?

Argued it was biological, social and organic factors that caused crime and criminality

Who disproved physical differences in criminals?

Charles Goring

1) Psychoanalytical Theory (Freud)

2) Personality Theory (Eysenck, Feldman)

3) the intelligence-crime link (Goddard)

4) Often those caught have a low IQ

Robert Park

Ernest Burgess

Louis Wirth

Sociological Theories

1) Anomie (Durkheim)

2)Social Disorganisation (Chicago School)

3) Anomie and Strain theory (Merton)

Control Theories

1) Social Control Theory (Hirschi)

2) Self-Control Theory (Gottfredson and Hirschi)

Social Learning Theories

1) Differential Association (Sutherland)

2) Differential Reinforcement Theory (Akers and Jeffery)

3) Neutralisation Theory (Sykes and Matza)

1) Suggest rationality and cannot explain spontaneous or emotional acts.

2) Insufficant evidence to prove that indivduals learn techniques to enable them to become criminals before they have actually committed criminal acts.

1) Attachment - care for others and their beliefs, no attachment means less acceptance of social bonds and norms.

2) Committment - investment in society through school or business, means something to lose.

3) Involvment - the notion that involvment in conventional activites will leave little room for crime.

4) Belief - belief in society, its rules and norms (Hirschi).

1) Emphasis on control over punishment

2) Did not explain why only some individuals from the same circumstances commit crime

3) Neglects the different motivations behind crime

4) Ignores structural issues such as class, the nature and role of law, the role of law makers and the role of law enforcers

5) Can only explain relatively trival forms of crime and cannot explain powerful or professional crime