growth exponential over the past 500 years but is now slowing

currently 7 billion but expected to peak at 9 billion at the turn of the centry

australia 60,000 big flightless birds and large marsupials 12,000 megafauna

recently around 1000 species

Ivory-billed woodpecker and Yangtze river dolphin in china

20% loss of Amazon rain forest

.1% of tallgrass prairie remains

95% of US forests have been cut

Asian carp, ladybird beetle, emerald ash bore, etc.

brown tree snake eliminating most endemic birds on Guam

two beetles recently in europe

carbon release and global warming current issue

issue of the past was cloroflurocarbons and the ozone (hairsprays)

1. latitude more sunlight-most species and diversity (rainforest many species but few of each species)
   
2. atmosphericc currents winds tropics-hot up, cool, releases rain, outside-cooler drier are decends hight atmospheric pressure (deserts))
3. ocean currents (cold on the west depressing rainfall (less evaporation) in adjacent lands thus creating deserts, warm east = more rain.)
4. altitude effects independent of latitude (2.5-5 degree drop per 1000 feet)
   
5. seasonal shifts

Because the protein sequences are slightly different

similar to color opsins responding to different wavelenghts of light despite them all using retinal.

9:3:3:1

the last category is the homozygote for the two recessive alleles

sum total of the places where organisms live

the sum of all ecosystems and biomes int he world today

temperate regions

2nd belt of rising air creates huge storms (low pressure systems) air rises,, cools, rain, moving west to east, rain in summer and snow in winter, stronger in the south hemisphere

Arctic regions

2nd belt of descending cooil air produces tundra, cool air=less evaporation, semi-desert, Canada, Alaska, Russia, Patagonia, New Zealand south island, major growth in sumer little light in winter

this is because of winter rainf fall caused by temperate region storms moving toward the tropics

Mediterranean sea, California, south Chili, western Australia, southern tip of South Africa

result from combo of plate tectonics, continental drift and combo fo climate zones and biomes

neotropial, neartic, palearctic, oriental, ethiopian, Australasian

each has its independent evolutionary history, convergent adaptiions on each continent

producers (photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs-bacteria/archaea)

consumers (herbivoes, carnivores, parasites)

detritivores (earthworms-vultures-insects) and decomposers (fungi-bacteria)

open cycle in one direction

1% solar energy trapped by producers

10% energy at each level being transmitted to next tropic level

primary (herbivores) eat producers

secondary -eat primary consumers

tertiary-eat secondary consumers

Howard Odum

measured energy flow of spring ecosystem for a year in 1950s

looking at fish

(bioaccumulation) a result of trophic levels

requires: pesistence and uptake by organisms

example: DDT-insecticide in 1940s that biomagnified in ecosystem causign thinning o eggshells of predatory birds

Biogeochemical cycles

closed cycles

main reservoir in environment

92% reservoirs in the oceans (carbonate and bicarbonate) oceans major sink for dissolved carbon

4% in soils

2% in living plants and animals

2% in atmosphere (CO2) .04% of atmosphere...keeps us warm

major fluxes between atmosphere and plants and animals

The highest PPM for the earth was around 270 throughout history (300-200) for 100,000 years and now it is at 320-400 today!!!!

much of the cause is due to the burning of fossil fueils, coal layed down from plants and oils layed down from marine phytoplankton during the warm (CO2 rich) Carboniferous period in the Palezoic Era 360-300 million years ago

.5 celseus

1 degree difference is major

10 degree difference is total to throw us into an ice age

methane (CH4)

Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) entirly man-made

will effect the extremes most (artic/mountain tops)

difference in nesting times

worsening weather

extincsion

rising sea levels

sum of total of all activities and relationships in which individuals of a species engage as tehy secure and use the resources they require to survive and reproduce

fundamental niche: the widest range of situations a species could inhbit

realized nihe: actual rage of situations a species inhabits, constrained by competition and other interacitons with other species

interactions between species that benefit both members of the transaction

Obligate: neither species can survive without the other: lichens and some plant and pollinators

neutrality: no interaction (most common)

competition

symbiosis (commensalism (helps one), mutualism (helps both), parasitism (harms one))

Predation

distrbed communities change over time

primary: plants first move into an entirely new habitat

secondary: after volcanic explosion or fire

number os species likely to be found in a given area depends on these factors (size of area and distance from sources of species)

farther distance form the colonizing source, the fewer species are found on island

true for both pysical and conceptional islands

division of labor between castes or forms and restriction of reproduction to a few individuals

honey bees, paper wasps

evolved repeatedly amongst bees

only mammal is naked mole rat

haploidiploid reproduction:

males haploid (all genes mother's)

females diploid (1/2 from dad)

honey bees and ants

females genetically at least as close to their mother than their sisters and their daughters

"I'll scratch your back if you'll scratch mine"

human society

altruistic punishment

monkeys grooming

animals have a genetic program that controls the development of their nervous system, ultimately yielding appropriate behaviors in particular situations

apple maggot fly/ stickleback fish (red belly)

superstimuli: outside stimuli

fixed action patterns: responses of animals, paticular stimuli evoke particular behabiors (egg laying)

controlled by particular synaptic connections (maintanence of connection important "use it or lose it")

far from understood

axon-guiding proteins lead axons of one neuron to form synapses with another

monotremes, marsupials and placentals evolved (before the end of the cretaceous)

small group of placental species that were insectibores moved into trees and became prosimians.

Tree shrews, bushbabies, lorises, lemurs

Tarsiers-distant lineage closer to remaining primates endangered species of Asia (elongated tarsal bones in feet)

prosimian lineage gave rise to monkeys

new world monkeys continued a massive radiation in Americas

Old World Monkeys diversified to include vervets and baboons (Afria and Asia)

Old worl monkeys gave rise to an even larger version the lesser apes

which spread over asia

live in trees (gibbon)

great apes evolved

orangutan, gorillas and chimps and humans

bigger brains

our lineage spilt from other species

chimps differ from us by 1.5% of base pairs (5% including insertions and deletions)

lack of fossiles because of humid habitat

earliest human lineage fossil

Australopithecines

stood up right and had enlarged brains

following would be many species that would die off

Homo habilis "handy man" 2 myr ago

our species had convluted origin with many populations/species differentiating over time

we most likely originated in Africa and spread

races younger than 100,000 years old

Americas invaded just 15-30,000 years ago