Term
| Who was James Hutton and what did he contribute to geology? |
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Definition
- The founder of modern geology
- Proposed the principle of uniformitarianism: there are inviolable laws of nature that have not changed in the course of time. (e.g. life requires h2o, all life requires h2o)
- rocks formed by processes currently operating at/near the Earth's surface.
- proposed that present-day events are the key to the past.
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Term
| Who was Charles Lyell and what was his contribution to geology? |
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Definition
- rephrased Hutton's theory after reading his book: geological remains from the distant past can, and should, be explained by reference to geological processes now in operation and thus directly observable.
- Actualism: the application of modern processes to explain the formation of ancient rock, in accordance to the principle of uniformitarianism.
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Term
| Who was Walter Alvarez and what did he contribute to geology? |
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Definition
- His father was a physicist who discovered the element Iridium. Alvarez proposed that Iridium is rare on Earth because it originated on meteorites.
- Catastrophism: the theory that explains rock records as a result of sudden, short-lived, and violent global events.
- formation of the moon
- extinction of the dinosaurs
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Term
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Definition
- Principle of Superposition: oldest strata are at the bottom in an undisturbed sequence of strata.
- Principle of Original Horizontality: all strata are horizontal when they form.
- Principle of Original Lateral Continuity: Strata originally were unbroken expanses, but become inturupted by erosion.
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Term
| Who was William Smith and what were his contributions to geology? |
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Definition
- "father of English geology" aka the "strata smith"
- claimed fossil occurrence is not random, but in a paticular vertical order--fossil succession
- came up w/ the geologic time scale.
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Term
| What are hard part fossils? |
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Definition
- Most common types of fossils that are preserved
- teeth, internal skeltons, & bones of vertebrates
- the internal skeletons embedded in soft tissue of invertebrates
- extenal skeletons (shells of bivalve, gastropod, and mollusks)
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Term
| what are soft part fossils? |
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Definition
- very rare
- body outlines
- blood vessels
- skin
- preservation requires: O2-free env that are found in fine-grained/impermeable sediments
- often found in swamps & bogs because the degradation of organic matter depletes the O2
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Term
| What is permineralization? |
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Definition
- a common form of fossilization
- pores of plant materials or bones created by degradation and mineral-rich solution infiltrates and precipitates.
- common minerals: calcite (CaCO3), iron minerals, and chert (SiO2)
- occurs over a short time-scale (few hundered years)
- often creates petrified wood
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Term
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Definition
- A solution percolates thru rock or sediment and dissolves the fossil skeleton leaving a mold.
- the mold is filled w/ wax, clay, or liquid rubber to produce a fossil replica.
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Term
| List the Eons in order from oldest to youngest and the time frame in terms of MYA |
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Definition
- Hadean: no life, the oldest rocks formed (4.6 BYA-3.8 BYA)
- Archean: Microbes are the only form of life (3.8 BYA-2.5 BYA)
- Proterozoic: O2 in atmosphere rose to current levels, no conspicuous fossils, soft-bodied marine invertebrates. (2.5 BYA-542 MYA)
- Phanerozoic: Fossils (542 MYA-Present)
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Term
| List the Eras of the PHanerozoic Eon from oldest to youngest in terms of events and MYA |
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Definition
- Paleozoic Era: interval of oldest life (545-250 MYA)
- Mesozoic Era: Intermediate Life or "age of the dinosaurs" (250-65 MYA)
- Cenozoic Era: Modern Life or "age of mammals" (65 MYA-Present)
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Term
| What are fossil impressions? |
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Definition
- Squashed molds: 2-D preservations of outlines and surface features left by residue of concentrated carbon.
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Term
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Definition
- provide behavioral information about animal life of the past.
- tracks
- trails
- burrows
- marks
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Term
| What are the 3 taxonomic groups? |
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Definition
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Term
| whats the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes |
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Definition
- Prokaryotes:
- include archaea and bacteria
- lack a nucleus
- unicellullar
- Eukaryotes:
- includes everything else
- has a nucleus and organelles
- includes plants, animals, most fungi are unicellular Eukarya
- most Protists are unicellular
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Term
| What are the basic categories of higher taxa? (smallest-largest) |
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Definition
- Species: Homo sapiens
- Genus: Homo
- Family: Hominidae
- Order: Primates
- Class: Mammalia
- Phylum: Chordata
- Kingdom: Animalia
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Term
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Definition
- a group of individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
- smallest taxonomic unit
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Term
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Definition
- evolutionary relationship between organisms
- represented as a tree of life: tells the story of evolution
- each leaf represents a species
- species cluster w/ those similar traits into genus, family order, class, phylum.
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Term
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Definition
- a cluster of species that share a common ancestry
- all species w/in each taxon must be traceable to a common ancestor.
- primitive traits: appear early in evolutionary history
- derived traits: evolved later in evolution and present only in some subgroups
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Term
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Definition
- a diagram representing phylogenetic relationship of taxa derived based on derived traits.
- origin of derived traits marks a branching point. (evolution of jaws, lungs, claws/nails, etc.)
- Disadvantages:
- only describes the relative phylogenetic relationship of taxa
- all organisms appear on the top of branches
- no complete information of phylogeny (who evolved from whom?)
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Term
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Definition
- Archaea and Bacteria are 2 domains of Prokaryotes
- Archaea tolerate hostile environments (very high/low temps, extreme PH conditions)
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Term
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Definition
- photosynthetic
- spherical
- filamentous (thread-like), some can form mats or scum, some can float
- fossil indicated that it is over 3 billion years old
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Term
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Definition
- diverse eukaryotes that are not animals, plants, or fungi
- simple organization (unicellular, or multicellular w/o highly specialized tissues)
- algae and protozoans (ancestors of plants & animals)
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Term
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Definition
- animal-like protists
- amoebas: constantly changing shapes, zooflagellates for locomotion, ciliates
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Term
| 3 groups of unicellular algae |
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Definition
- originated in the Mesozoic Era
- Dinoflagellates: 2 flagella, when conditions are unfavorable for survival dormancy (armor in a cyst, often fossilized as cysts), drift
- Diatoms: secrete two-part skeletons of opal, a form of silicon dioxide that differs from quartz in lacking a crystal lattice, accumulations can produce chert, freshwater & marine (most planktonic).
- Calcareous Nannoplankton: small spherical cells, armored w/ overlapping plates of calcium carbonate, mostly marine plankton, accumlations lithify to become fine-grained limestone called chalk.
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Term
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Definition
- some drift, but most attach to seafloor
- most are soft, felshy organisims but some secrete calcium carbonate skeltons that produce limestone
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Term
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Definition
- amebas
- chambered skeleton of calcium carbonate
- very abundant in the ocean or on the ocean floor
- long filaments of their protoplasm extend thru pores in the skeleton and interconnect to form a sticky net in which they catch food.
- widely used for searching for petroleum
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Term
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Definition
- amebas
- similar to foraminifera in that they capture food w/ threadlike extensions.
- float and secrete skeltons of noncrystalline opals made of silicon dioxide (SiO2).
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Term
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Definition
- decomposers: obtain nutrients from dead organisms
- members: yeast, mushrooms
- poor fossil record because they lack skeletons
- most mushrooms feed on wood, bark, or dead leaves.
- typically have filamenteous cells
- many have many cells tat are packed tightly into bundles
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Term
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Definition
- studies distribution & abundance of organisms on a broad geographic scale.
- limiting factors:
- temperature is the greatest limiting factor
- diversity increases toward the equator
- barriers can affect dispersal
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Term
| Mammoths and their distribution and evolution |
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Definition
- died about 10,000 years ago
- discovered in the frozen soil in siberia
- migrated 1.8 mya during the Pleostocene on a land bridge to North America
- migrated to Eurasia
- evolved in Africa 5 MYA
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Term
| fossilized plants as climate indicators |
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Definition
- Cycads: ancient group of plants that grown only in the tropics today.
- allow for the reconstruction of climate patterns
- Leaf Margins:good indicators of past climate and annual rainfall
- tropical leaves are thick, smooth, and waxy that help them retain moisture and fall rain drops off the leaf
- temperate climates have jagged margins that help them collect and retain water more effectively
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Term
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Definition
- Oceanic sediments, fine-grained
- 3 types:
- clay (forms shale)
- calcareous ooze (forms chalk)
- siliceous ooze (forms chert)
- accumulates slowly by settling thru the water column
- Ooze: soft deposits of dead bodies of protista
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Term
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Definition
- accumulates slowly from continents and is carried by by wind, h20, or ice.
- most abundant sediment on sea floor (50-70%)
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Term
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Definition
- accumulatations of single-celled planktonic calcareous organisms
- formed from foraminifera & calcareous nanoplankton calcium carbonate skeletons
- consolidates to form chalk
- abundant only in modern ocean depths of less than 4000 meters because calcium carbonate begins to dissolve as it settles to great depths. as presure increases and temp declines concentrations of CO2 increase and carbonic acid increases as well and causes calcium carbonate to dissolve.
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Term
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Definition
- Accumulations of single-celled planktonic siliceous protists
- diatoms and radiolarians
- consolidates to form chert
- the composition of pelagic sediments has changed markedly in the course of geologic time as groups of sediment-contributing organisms have waxed and waned w/in the pelagic realm
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Term
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Definition
- marine organisms (especially plankton) die skink to the ocean floor. as organic materials are buried deeper and deeper it heats up and undergoes a series of chemical reaction sand liquefies. the petroleum moves upward thru porous rocks and cracks until it is trapped by an impermiable boundary.
- molecules w/ >5 carbon atoms turn liquid (crude oil)
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Term
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Definition
- Native Americans gathered oil from seeps and springs along Oil Creek, Pennsylvania since the 1400s for medical purposes
- oil was skimmed from the surface of the water w/ wooden paddles or soaked w/ blankets
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Term
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Definition
- movement of cold, nutrient-rich ocean water rising to the surface from depths over 50 M.
- a crucial step in the recycling physical process that moves cold water upward from the deepsea to the photic zone.
- wind blows across the ocean surface
- cooling effects near polar regions
- brings nutrients to the photic zone in large quantities and produces rich growht of phytoplankton
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Term
| Edwin Drake "Crazy Drake" |
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Definition
- Hired by seneca to dig a hole/trench to obtain oil but had the idea to drill instead which was a new idea.
- failed most of his life and didn't even have a high school degree
- seneca terminated their contract w/ him because drilling was too expensive and didn't need him so he had to give gredit to misguide friends and family
- started the oil industry
- drilled nearly 70 feet down
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Term
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Definition
- hydrogeologist and petroleum geologist
- had the peak oil theory: at any geographical area, from an individual oil field to the planet as a whole, annual petroleum production follows a bell-shaped curve
- "I don't work with losers"
- his theory can be applied to any finite resource
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Term
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Definition
- the accumulated layer must be anaerobic--the best place is in cool bogs (peat bogs) where repeated flooding and deposition of silt layers provide the right conditions for anaerobic decay and the accumulation and compaction of organic plant matter
- at 50 M peat forms (peat is low in O2 and organic matter is partly decomposed by bacteria/fungi
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Term
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Definition
- as peat is buried deeper and deeper--press. and temp increase and converts peat into lignite
- as press. and temp increase h20 is squeezed out and H and O2 content leaving it w/ a higher carbon content than peat.
- carbon content between 25-35%
- 43% h20
- compressed dehydrated woody material
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Term
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Definition
- dull black in color
- carbon content 35-45%
- relatively low in sulfur content
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Term
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Definition
- most common type of coal in the US
- soft, dark, and dense
- carbon content 45-80%
- forms after lignite
- more h20 is squeezed out making it increase in carbon content
- h2o content 3%
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Term
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Definition
- highest carbon content 80-96%
- burns very cleanly
- formed after coal deposits exposed to abnormally high temps
- forms at depths deeper than oil and dry gases
- black in color
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Term
| Enviornmental impacts of coal mining & burning |
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Definition
- ghg emissions
- emissions of sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide, and mercury
- air particles
- acid mine drainage
- land deterioration (subsidence and groundwater flow)
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Term
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Definition
- loose sediment containing organic matter and accumulated in contact w/ the atmosphere
- topsoil (15-20 cm)--sand and clay mixed w/ humus
- humus--organic matter that gives topsoil its dark color that forms from teh decay of plant debris by bacteria
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Term
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Definition
- caliche--warm dry climate soil that produces calcium carbonate by the evaporation of groundwater
- laterite--most tropical soils that is rich in iron oxides
- lake soils--are more likely to preserve fossil
- sediments are coarsest around lake margins and finest at the center
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Term
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Definition
- study of stratified rocks, especially their geometric relations, comositions, origins, and age relations.
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Term
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Definition
- abundant enough in rocks to be found easily
- geographically widespread and thus can be used to correlate rocks over a large area
- occurs in many kinds of sedimentary rocks and therefore can be found in many places
- easily distinguished from other taxa
- has a narrow stratigraphic range, which allows for precise correlation if its mere presence is used to define a zone
- must be abundant, wide-spread, and unique
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Term
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Definition
- Uranium undergoes spontaneous decay
- atoms release subatomic particles and energy
- change to another element
- radioactive isotopes decay at a constant geometric rate
- after a certain amount of time, half of the parent present will survive and half of will decay to daughter
- Problems: best candidates for most radiometric dating are minerals in igneous rock, not very useful for strata and error in age estimate can be sizable
- Radioisotope: an unstable isotope of an element that decays or disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation of particles (alpha, beta, neutrons) and/or photons (gamma)
- atomic number: number of protons and is unique to each element
- atomic weight: mass of protons and neutrons
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