a set of individuals of the same species who are able to reproduce and produce fertile offspring

a group of individuals or populations potentially able to interbreed and unable to produce fertile offspring by breeding with other sorts of animals and plants

a group of individuals of the same species who interact and reproduce together in the same area at the same time

individuals of a particula species with definable group characteristics

a group of individuals of more than one species who interact together at the same area at the same time

all of the populations of organisms that interact in a given area at a given time

the community of organisms in an area, along with the abiotic resources they interact with

a community of self-sustaining, self-regulating organisms interacting with the physical environment within a defined geographic area 

an area if land containing patches of different ecosystem types

many ecosystems taken together

biome

a set of similar ecosystems, often located in many places around the world

a major ecological community of organisms, both plant and animal, usualy characterized by the dominant vegetation type

the number of different species in an area, and their relative abundance

the variety of life forms that inhabit the Earth

includes the genetic diversity among members of a population or species, as well as the diversity of species and ecosystems

the habitat requirements and interactins (both biotic and abiotic) that allow a species to survive and produce offspring

defines the functional role of an organism within its community 

the complete ecological description of an individual species

trophic level

autotroph

producer

self nourishing organisms

given water, they can produce the compounds necessary for their survival

form the basis of the food web

heterotrophs

consumer

organisms that cannot produce their own food

eat by engulfing or predigesting the flesh, cells, tissues or waste products of other organisms

herbivor, which eats mostly plants

in a food chain, organisms that consume producers

carnivore, which eats mostly animals

in a food chain, organisms (usually animal) that conume primary consumers

organisms which feed on already dead organisms

responsible for decomposition and decay

heterotrophs that digest, outside of their cells and bodies, the tissues of dead organisms or waste products

one organism kills and eats another

prey species have evolved behavioral, reproductive, and physical and chemical characteristics to help them avoid being eaten

two organisms attempt to use the same resource

can be either intraspecific or interspecific

two organisms engage in behavior which benefits both

form of symbiosis

between members of the same species

major cause of density - dependent growth

competition increases as a population's density increases 

occurs between 2 different species

if there is too much niche overlap, one species will drive the other out

may not completely go extinct, but it will be pushed to the edge where it may have a specialist advantage

superior if resources are somewhat undependable

can use a wider range of resources

sacrifice efficiency to use wider range of resource

can occupy difficult or harsh environments

take advantage of open niches and are superior to generalists if resources are dependable

the amount of sunlight varies in different latitudes

air heated along the equato, expands, and rises

warm air can hold a great deal of moisture, but as it rises and cools, the moisture falls out as rain

areas along the equator receive the most moisture; locations at about 30 N and 30 S latitude are dry

Earth's orbit and Tilt create seasons at high latitudes

provides a wide variety of niches because there will be areas at different stages of succession

any event that removes some individuals or biomass from a community

alters some aspect of resource availability

any physical force that results in mortality of organisms or loss of biomass

the development of a new ecosystem in an area previously devoid of organisms

-no soil

-no organic matter

-"blank slate"

-succession is slower, 1000's of years 

the regrowth that occurs after an ecosystem has been disturbed, often by human activity

some organisms are still present - the ecosystem is set back to an earlier successional stage

-old soil

-organic matter

-succession is faster, 100s of years

growth is slow 

not very many individuals

even fewer are reproductive

organisms are adjustying to new conditions 

growth increases

a few more individuals 

more are reproductive

animals are adjustive

a rate of growth in which a quantitiy increases by a fixed percentage of the whole in a given time period

maximum growth rate

- many are reproducing

-resources are abundant

-no crowding

birth rate > death rate

an ecosystem's ability to react to constant changes thereby maintaining relative stability

when a system remains stable, but with slight changes

upper bound of numbers is reached

birth rate=death rate

density resistance

density-dependent

 biotic factors - density of organisms

a biotic factor in an environment that limits population growth and is more pronounced when population density is high

-disease

-cannibalism

-starvation

-stress

density resistance

density-independent

abiotic factors

environment happens no matter how many there are 

an abiotic factor in an environment that sets upper limits on the population and is unrelated to population density

- climate

-weather

-natural disasters

-limited space

outputs that promote the current trend

response to changes tend to bring the ecosystem back similar to pre-disturbance but NOT identical

a good example of this is the exponential phase of population growth. as the population density increases, it makes reproduction easier. eventually negative feedback will limit the positive feedback

outputs that interfere with the current trend

negative feedbacks keep systems from getting out of control, and contribute to inertia

inertia is the resistance to change 

usually abiotic-harmful to ecosystem function usually due to toxicity

adverse alteration of a natural system's integrity, diversity, or productivity

major cause is pollution

an acute disturbance in a natural ecosystem that can be traced directly to a specific human activity

usually biotic, interferes with normal interactions between species, either by adding or removing species

change in species composition 

intercontinental transport leads to the introduction of invasive species

the conversion of a natural system to a less complex human system

removal of habitat, usually due to human land use

major causes are agriculture, trasportation and urbanization

land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry, sub-humid regions resulting mainly from adverse human impact

damage to soil and vegetation causing dry sandy soil

overgrazing, overcultivation, deforestation, and poor irrigation practices

complete or partial removal of trees from forests

fragmentation results in further ecosystem degradation by segmendint an intact frontier into smaller, less functional patches 

the storage of chemicals in an organism in higher concentrations than are normally found in the environment

dilute toxins in the environment can reach dangerous levels inside cells and tissue

the accumulation of chemicals in organisms in increasingly higher concentrations at successive trophic levels

the effects of toxins are magnified through food webs

useable by organisms

slow degradation = persistent

20-150 years

unusable by organisms

persistent for eons

radioactive waste

 Synthetic compounds that interfere with the endocrine systems of living organisms, causing problems in growth, development, and reproduction 

Some chemicals mimic hormones that regulate body function.  Especially important in reproduction.

o   Organochlorine pesticides

o   Human prescriptions

o   PCBs

o   BPA

unidentified source

run off from agriculture fields

run off from roads, parking lots, lawns, golf course

events are immediate and short-term

also immediate on organisms

high mortality rates in all trophic levels

events are long term

slow build-up of toxins over time

non-lethal to organisms

not always obvious

functions or processes of a natural ecosystem that provide benefits to human societies

crops are pollinated by insects

water for irrigation

soil to grow food in

fish in the oceans

wheat, rice, maize provide 60% of the worlds food

especially important for disease and pest resistance

it takes 16 lbs of grain = 1 lb of edible meat

3 main sources - pork, poultry, beef

world production continuing to increase

potential problems 

-need for grazing land

-overgrazing

-industrial farming

-energy investment 

leading source of animal protein

production is increasing

global potential for marine capture has been reached; dependent on aquaculture for additional production

-overexploitation

-pollution and habitat destruction

-growing fishing fleets

-open access during fishing season

the consumption of inadequate levels of protein and calories (under 2000) which over an extended period of time gradually weakens an individual's capacity to function properly and to ward off disease

mental and physical activities are slowed down

victims become lethargic and unable to focus

marasmus - caused by lack of calories

consumption of too few or too many nutrients

can cause malabsorptive hunger, stunting, wasting, underweight, macro- and micronutrient deficiencies

translated as "the sickness the baby gets when the new baby comes"

caused by eating lots of starchy food, but no protein

swollen abdomen is caused by the liver becoming swollen with fat

environmental damage

war and conflict

natural disaster

economic forces

poor are forced to clear and overwork undesirable land

overworking land reduces its fertility, leading to more hunger and poverty

people driven away from homes and farmlands

crops and livestock destroyed

land and water resources destroyed

drought is the most common cause of food shortages

floods

storms

insect outbreaks

grown for export

coffee, tobacco, cotton

food crops are abandoned for higher profits associated with cash crops

launch a Green Revolution in Africa 

Attack the root causes of hunger

- poverty

-overpopulation

-environmental degradation

oil

coal

natural gas

fossil fuel

forms from dead plants that grew on land

originates from the chemical decomposition of microorganisms that got buried under geological formations in the sea millions of years ago

tiny sea pleants and animals died and were buried on the ocean floor - over time they became covered by layers of silt and sand

over millions of years, the remains were buried deeper and deeper - the enormous heat and pressure turned them into oil and natural gas

oil - middle east

coal - united states

natural gas - russia

an oil field empties rapidly at the start and yields a lot of oil

then the flow slows down gradually

towards the end, the flow eases to a rickle

like a sponge, empties rapidle under its own pressure at the start

how much oil is used

how fast out energy use increases

refers to the ratio of the amount of energy in fuel and the amound of energy spent getting the fuel

basically, when it takes the energy of a barrel of oil  to extract a barrel of oil, the oilfield is exhausted

an energy source that can be used instead of fossil fuels that is available but not widely used

it is usually a renewable source of energy that could be used should fossil fuels run out

not always renewable

the energy contained within the nucleus of an atom, this energy can be utiliized through nuclear fission to create electricity 

no pollution

reduce rependence on foreign sources of fossil fuels

accidents

high cost

thermal pollution

disposal of wastes 

unlimited supply

available everywhere

non-polluting

technologically available

sunlight is not consistant 

can be costly

requires large land area

need batteries or other storage

energy that originates from air currents and can be collected using windmills or wind turbines

clean

perpertual

costs will continue to decrease

wind is intermittent and varies

not available everywhere

high costs

bird kills

visibility

a mean of producing electricity which exploits the energy present in falling water

water at the top of the dam is in a high state of gravitational potential energy; as the water drops, its potential energy is converted to kinetic energy

as the water strikes the blades of a turbine, spinning the turbine shaft, the kinetic energy is converted to mechanical energy, which can be used to drive a generator to produce an electric current

clean

multipurpose

flood control

available to many developing nations

drastically alters ecosystems

collects silt

displaces people and wildlife

requires strong management 

energy generated by the natural heat and pressure occurring beneath the Earth's surface

environmentally friendly

moderate cost

can be nonrenewable if too much water pumped out

limited number of good locations

trapped gases and substances may be released during extraction 

extends 8 miles up from Earth's surface

contains gases that support life

where weather occurs

10% of the ozone

from the top of the troposphere up to 31 miles

contains the ozone layer that protects Earth from ultraviolet radiation

90% of the ozone

extends from the top of the stratosphere to 56 miles above Earth's surface

most meteors burn up in this layer

extends from the top of the mesosphere to outer space

aurora brealis occur in this layer

78% nitrogen

21% oxygen

0.03% carbon dioxide

remainder is composed of rare gases

varying amounts of water vapor

air often contains moisture, other gases and elements, and organisms 

emitted directly into the atmosphere where they exert an aversive influence on human health or the environment

carbon dioxide

carbon monoxide

sulfure oxides

hydrocrabons

particulates

particles of different substances suspended in the air

in the form of soild particles and liquid droplets

particles vary widely in size

may cause respiratory problems

VOC

volatile organic compounds

compounds that evaporate easily to become an inhalant hazard

most are petroleum based compounds used and produced in manufacture of paints, pharmaceuticals, and refrigerants

a type of naturaly occuring rock, which forms flexible fibers

non-flammable, very good insulator and fire protection

found in insulation, floor tiles, and building products

causes lung cancer and asbestosis

a naturally occurring radioactive gas arising from the decay of uranium 238, which may be harmful to human health in high concentrations

produced by certain types of rock, such as granite

carcinogen

a chemical used as a coolant, solvent, or propellant, which is a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone

depletes the ozone - last a long time

in the stratosphere, it absorbs potentially harmful ultraviolet rays

protects from skin cancer, etc.

at ground level, ozone is a health hazard

major constituent of photochemical smog

rain, snow, or fog that contains higher than normal levels of sulfuric or nitric acid, which may damage forestsm aquatic ecosystems and cultural landmarks

precipitation with a pH level of 5.5 or below

primarily caused by sulfates and nitrates from industrial processes

regional impact

makes toxic metals more soluable - acid now reacts with metals 

air pollution consisting chiefly of sulfur oxides and particulates

this is emitted tot he air from industrial and manufacturing facilities

primarily sulfur oxides and particles - partly responsible for acid rain

emitted by industrial and manufacturing facilities

an atmospheric haze that occurs above industrial sites and urban areas resulting from reactions between pollutants produced in high temperature and pressurized combustion processes, such as the combustion of fuel in a motor vehicle

produced when incomplete combustion of fossil fuels

primary component is ground-level ozone

trap pollution near the ground

normally, warm pollution can rise up through cool air

if there is a layer of warm air above a city, the pollution cannot rise 

a shift in the Earth's long-term weather patterns caused by an anthropogenically enhanced greehouse effect

greenhouse gases trap reradiated heat within the atmosphere

we need some greenhouse effect to keep the temp. stable

reflecitivity, or the fraction of incident light that is reflected by surface

reflected light

lighter surfaces reflect more heat, stay cooler

the relative power of a surface to reradiate solar radiation back into space in the form of heat, or long-wave infrared radiation

radiated heat

capacity of a surface to radiate heat

equal to the amount of solar radiation absorbed, degraded to heat, and radiated back into space

average global temperature has increased 0.4 F since the 1960s

the 10 warmest years on record have occured since 1990

1998, 2002, 2003, and 2004 are the four warmest years on record

data comes from: tree ring analysis, fossil evidence, coral skeletions, ice cores

sea level rises

global climate expected to continue to warm

changes in rainfall patterns, growing seasons, arable lands

more sever floors and droughts

glacial melting

97% saltwater, 3% freshwater

3/4 of freshwater is frozen in polar ice-caps and glaciers

1/4 of freshwater is underground

0.5% of Earth's water is in lakes, rivers, and the atmosphere

40-80 million people displaced by dam projects in the past 50 years

sediment settles behind dams, filling reservoirs and not nourishing downstream floodplains

small risk of catastrophic failure

habitat alteration

lost recreational opportunitis on river

fisheries declines from thermal pollution and blockage of migration

disruption of flooding that builds topsoil

new recreational opportunities on reservoir

flood controld by storing seasonal surges

generation of renewable electricity

carbon emissions much lower than power from fossil fuels

reliable irrigation for farming

reliable drinking water if watershed lands are protected

in many places, we are withdrawing water at unsustainable rates

reduced flow drastically changes the river's ecology, plant community, and destroys fish and invertebrates

remove, use, return water to same place 

hydroelectic dams

cooling for powerplants and factories

remove and use water from one place

sometimes return it to another place

energy generation

agriculture

drinking

bathing

waste disposal

industrial purposes

mining

a lake that is cold and deep, with a high oxygen content and a relatively low amound of dissolved solids, nutrients, and phytoplankton

deep, cold, low organic content

- low nutrient levels

-good light penetration

-high dissolved oxygen

-deep waters

-low algae growth

a lake that is warm and shallow, with a low oxygen content and a relatively high amount of nutrients, phytoplankton, and other organisms

shallow, warm, high organic content

- high nutrient levels

-poor light penetration

-low dissolved oxygen

-shallow waters

-high algae growth

temperature differences prevent upper and lower layers of a body of water from mixing

thermocline separates two layers 

photosynthesis and oxygen concentrated 

a water-bearing geological formation composed of layers of sedimentary material

porous sponge-like formations of rock, sand, or gravel that hold water

impermeable layer above the aquifer restricts downard flow of water

a groundwater deposit in which the overlying material is impermeable, restricting the downward flow of water to the water table

water can move freely down to the water table

groundwater deposit in which the overlying material is permeable, allowing water, which permeates the soil to move freely downward to the water table - susceptible to contamination

overdraft

lowers the water table, mking it necessary to dig a deeper well - this is leading cause of desertification 

cone of depression

lowering of water table

salination near coastlines

sinkholes

drying up of rivers and wetlands

cone of depression

small pieces of once-living matter

come from human and animal wastes or plant residue

decomposition of organic wasts depletes dissolved oxygen

pesticides are in most of the shallow aquifers tested

agricultural runoff

-increase algal and plant growth

-cause of eutrophication

-can cause oxygrn depleted dead zones

by-products seep into water from miles around

radioactive wastes will contaminate water for 750,000 years

most abundant water pollution 

damage aquatic life

also represents loss of topsoil

can damage organisms and their cells

can cause cancer

organic substances - oil, gas, cleaners

inorganic substances 

temperature changes can damage and degrade aquatic communities

caused by water used for cooling purposes

chemical addition gathers dirt and solids which settle as sludge

water is filtered 

chlorine is added

chemical addition reduces acidity

some plants add fluoride

underground tank which holds wastewater as bacteria break down contaminants

each home treats its own sewage

output is relatively clean, but still needs some treatment

carries rainwater and wastewater

during high-flow periods, some water may bypass treatment plant

sanitary sewers carry wastewater

storm sewers carry rainwater and runoff

storm sewers bypas treatment plants, but sanitary sewers do not

is the geological material in a location. It may be composed of lava or volcanic ash, rock or sediment deposited by glaciers, wind-blown sand dunes, or sediments deposited by rivers, in lakes, or in the ocean.

physical - no chemical changes to parent material

chemical - parent material chemically changed

biological - organisms produce soil through physical or chemical means

spongy, fertile material formed by partial decomposition of organic material

partially decomposed plant and animal matter that is the organic component of soil and gives it the ability to retain water and maintain a high nutrient content

organic - litter layer - O

topsoil - inorganic and organic material most nurtritive for plants - A

indicates composition and fertility

black/brown - rich in organic matter

pale gray/white - indicates leaching

red/pink - iron in soil

determined by the size of the particles

loam - soil with an uneven mixture of sand, silt, clay

affects how easily air and water travel through the soil

influences how easy soil is to cultivate

silty soils with medium-size pores, or loam soils with mixture of pore sizes are best for plant growth and agriculture

a measure of soil's "clumpiness"

a medium amount of clumpiness is best for plants

repeated tilling compacts so decreasing its water-absorbing capabilities

affects a soil's ability to support plant growth

soils that are too acidic or basic can kill plants

influences the availability of nutrients for plants

process that allows plants to gain nutrients

negatively charged soil hold positively charged ions

calcium, magnesium, and potassium

roots donate hydrogen to soil in exchange for these nutrients

A method of land clearing in which vegetation is cut, allowed to dry, and then set on fire prior to the cultivation of the soil and the planting of crops 

The removal of material from one place to another

Deposition

Arrival of eroded material at a new location

Occurs faster than soil is formed

 Plowing perpendicular across a hill

Prevents rills and gullies

Competition for space and resources

Predation

Disease

Exploitation/harvest/hunting Habitat loss -Deforestation

Planting agricultural crops and urbanization

Habitat fragmentation -----Gradual, piecemeal degradation of habitat -----Continuous habitats are broken into patche -----Landscape-level strategies try to optimize areas to be preserve

Climate change