all alleles for every gene in a givenn population

(often emphasis on variation in alleles between members of a population)

many traits display variation within a population

due to 2 or more alleles influencing phenotype

polymorphic gene- 2 alleles

monomorphic- predominantly single allele

genes are usually polymorphic

shift in allele frequency from one environment to another

many white mice become black in a few generations

individuals at one extreme of a phenotypic range have greater reproductive success in a particular environment

favors the survival of individuals with intermediate phenotypes

clutch size

faors the survival of two or more different genogypes that produce different phenotypes

members of the populations can freely interbreed

grass in volcanic regions

two r more alleles are kept in balance and therfore are maintained in a population over the course of many generations

malaria preventions

(heterozygote favor  or rare individual have higher fitness)

form of natural selection

affects males most often

Directed at certain traits of sexually reproducing species that make it more likely for individuals to find or choose a mate and/or engage in successful mating

intraxeual: horns for fighting

intersexual: female choice (showy characteristic)

change allelic frequency due to randome chance unrelated to fitness

favors either loss or fixation of an allele

fastest in small populations

H-W individuals choose mates irrespective of genotypes and phenotype

assortative: similar phenotypes more likely to mate, increasing proportion of homozygoes

disassortative: dissimalar phenotypes mate, increasing heterozygosity

inbreeding: increases homozygotes

allelic and genotypic frequencies do not change from generation to generation

mating is random

population is infinitely large

no mutation

no selection

no migration

gene flow occurs when individuals migrate between populations having different allele frequencies

qn=(1-m)qo+mqi  m=M/M+N

changes in a population's gene pool from generation to generation

introduction of new genes variation

not a major factor dictating allele frequencies (evolution)

snail shells

phenotype of the progeny is determined by the mother's genotype not by her phenotype

defective alleles in maternal gene effects tend to have a dramatic effect on the phenotypeof the individual

a pattern in whcih a modification occurs to a nuclear gene or chromosome that alters gene expression

not a permanent change over the course of many generations because DNA sequence has not changed

offset differentces in the number of active sex chromosomes

Barr body in cells=inactive X chromosome

coat patterns different X linked color from mom and dad

expression of a gene depends on whether it is inherited from the male or female parent

(Parent of origin effect)

depending on how genes are marked the offspring expresses either the maternally-inherited or paternally-inherited allele

the marking takes place at a imprinting control region (ICR) at a part called differentially methylated domain (DMD) and methylation at DMD inhibits gene expression

therfore imprinting can be described as a process of silencing gene expression/ preventing transcription

inheritance patterns involving genetic material outside the nucleus

mitochondri and chloroplasts

in a regiion called the nucleoid

nucleoids can contain multiple chromosome and organelle can contain muliple nucleoids

chloroplasts tend to have more nucleoids per organelle than mitochondria

mitochondrial genetic materail = mtDNA

four-oclock plant

occur because the chloroplasts are transmitted only through the cytoplasm of the egg (pollen gains do not transmit chloroplasts to offspring)

population means and variances considered instead of individuals

measured

continuous variation

many loci (polygenic)

environment influences phenotype

have two carbon chains

(double ringed)

G A

smaller and simpler than purines

C T U

U in RNA

T in DNA

3 bases codes for one amino acid

10 bases 3.4nm in one turn

coding from 5 prime to 3 prime

UAA UAG UGA

start

AUG

oxidation: removal of e-

reduction: addition of e-

eletron removed from one molecule is added to another

process by which living cells obtain energy from organic molecules

primary aim to make ATP and NADH

most focus on glucose but also other organic molecules

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----> 6CO2 + 6H2O

Consists of 4 metobolic pathways

1. glycolysis
2. breakdown of pyruvate to an acetyl group
3. citric acid cycle
4. oxidative phosphorylation

stage 1 glucose metabolism

Glycolysis

occurs with or without O2

10 steps 3 phases

energy investment

cleavage

energy liberation

Glucose to pyruvate

stage 2: Glucose metabolism

Breakdown of pyruvate to acetyl group

eukaryotes: pyruvate transported to the mitochondrial matix to be broken down by pyruvate dehydrogenase

molecule of CO2 is removed from each pyruvate

remaining acetyl group attached to CoA to make aceyl CoA

1 NADH is made for each pyruvate

stage 3: Glucose metabolism

Citric acid cycle

metabolic cycle

(particular molecules move out while others enter, invovle a sereis of organic molecules regenerated with each cycle)

acetyl is removed from Acetyl CoA and attached to oxaloacetate to form citrate or citric acid

series of steps release 2 CO2, 1ATP, 3NADH, 1 FADH2

oxaloacetate is regenerated tostart cycle again

stage 4: Glucose metabolism

oxidative phosphorylation

high energy electrons removed from NADH and FADH to make ATP

typically requiring O2

oxidative process incolves electron transport chain

phosphorylation occurs by ATP synthase

group of protein complexes and small organic molecules embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane

can accept and donate e- in a linear manner in a series of redox reactions

movement of e- generates H+ electrochemical gradient/proton-motive force

(excess of positive charge outside matrix)

ensyme harnesses free energy as H+ flow through membrane embedded region

energy conversion-H+ electrochemical gradient or proton motive forcce converted to chemicla bond energy in ATP

rotary machine that makes ATP as it spins

gene: turn off or on

cellular: cell-signaling pathway like hormones

biochemical: feedback inhibition: product of pathway inhibits early steps to prevent overaccuulation of product

descriptive

discrete categories

few loci

little enviromental influence

measured

continuous variation

many loci (polygenic)

environmental influences phenotype

additive: each allele contributes equally to phenotype (hetero intermediate between homozygous)

dominance: a dominant allele controls phenotype (homozygous dominant and hererozygote have same value)

Overdominance: combination of alleles is advantageous (heter advantage)

1856-1964

plant experienments in garden of monastery

peaplant guy

"particulate theory of inheritance"

2 discrete hereditary factors for given character from one plant (genes)

one is dominant

during gamete formation the pair of fators split and are randomly distributed (law of segregation)

1:2:1 Geno

3:1 pheno

exploring two different traits

seed shape and seed color

G1: prepairs to divide

S: chromosomes are replicated (by the end a cell has twice as many chromatids as in G1)

G2: accumulation of materials necessary for nuclear and cell division

M: mitosis

46 chromosomes

2 sex 44 autosomal

SRY sex determining region on Y