• In the early 20th century, there is a lot of work done to create a free labor market in the colonies
• Want to get subsistence peasants into the market. If you only produce a small number of things, then you have to buy things-they enter into the money economy
• this often doesn't work very well, and you end up with some coercive policies.
• Africans and Asians often wouldn't work, except for higher wages
• They weren't very reliable workers
• use existing political structures--sometimes indigenous leaders would force natives
• labor drafts
• tax through cash, which would force the natives to work for money
• policing systems--had to have a card showing that you had worked a certain number of days in a year
• by the end of the 19th cent, we see a lot of transient laborers, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa
• They try to abolish slavery, but the policies actually increase slavery

• policing and labor code designed to create a free labor market
• no administration of justice
• an administrator could seize a native, and imprison them without a trial
• constraint par corps fixe 

• Colonies are more extensively exploited because of the war--economic activity increases
• controversial use of man power: Tireurs Senegalais-France needs more people to fight against a larger Germany
• inducements to the natives--you get things in return for fighting
• now countries are even more convinced of the importance of the empires 

• They want to exploit the colonies, but at the same time, they thought this would help the colonies
• private property
• labor markets
• political rights
• education
• they want the natives to pay for all of these things 

• Liberal colonial administrator
• called for colonial reform
• says Africans need to pay for the benefits 
•  1897 et mort le 4 février 1976

• A prominent colonial administrator
• 1923 published La Mise en Valeur
• This said that the French need to invest in the colonies
• The colonies will pay back and be worth it
• He argues that France's economic woes will be solved by the colonies 

• French poetry from the Carribean from the early 20th century
• Aime Cesaire
• Leopol Senghor
• The mission of colonialism is not being fulfilled
• racism
• absence of full citizenship
• but many were not advocating for full independence 
• The Négritude writers found solidarity in a common black identity as a rejection of perceived French colonial racism. They believed that the shared black heritage of members of the African diaspora was the best tool in fighting against French political and intellectual hegemony and domination

• really a powerful jolt to the colonies.
• not a lot of fighting in Sub-Saharan Africa
• North Africa was heavily involved
• The Middle East was a key theatre because of the Suez, and the British use of it for India
• See a rapid advance of Japanese power across Asia
• sweep through Indochina, but allow Japan to administer it
• begins a decade of chaos in Indonesia/Malasia
• 1942--Singapore falls to Japan
•  Japan disrupts prewar patterns of governance
• Affects the way natives felt about European competence for ruling

• Imperial powers have a permanent change in their power
• Britain
• Battle of Britain (1942)--an air attack by Germany on Britain will not work
• Tyring to hold on to India
• South Africa was an important ally
• undergoes a rapid decline
• Churchill in 1945 is trying to act as powerful as in 1939

was a line of concrete fortifications, tank obstacles, artillery casemates, machine gun posts, and other defenses, which France constructed along its borders with Germany and Italy, in light of its experience in World War I, and in the run-up to World War II.

The French established the fortification to provide time for their army to mobilize in the event of attack, allowing French forces to move into Belgium for a decisive confrontation with German forces.

While the fortification system did prevent a direct attack, it was strategically ineffective, as the Germans invaded through Belgium, flanking the Maginot Line.

• Go up to Belgium, and go around the Maginot line
• This gives you three options, and the other side doesn't know what you're going to do. You can...
• Capture Paris
• come behind the Maginot Line
• Go for the coast--they almost catch the British army at Dunkirk

• The Battle of Dunkirk was an important battle in the Second World War between the Allies and Germany. As part of the Battle of France on the Western Front, the Battle of Dunkirk was the defence and evacuation of British and allied forces in Europe from 26 May to 4 June 1940.

• Vichy France, officially the French State (État français), was France during the regime of Marshal Philippe Pétain, during World War II, from the German victory in the Battle of France (July 1940) to the Allied liberation in August 1944.^[2] Following the defeat in June 1940, President Albert Lebrun appointed Marshal Pétain as Premier of France. After making peace with Germany, Pétain and his government voted to reorganize the discredited Third Republic into an authoritarian regime.
• 1940, two chambers meet in Bordeaux

• In the Second World War, the Battle of France, also known as the Fall of France, was the successful German invasion of France and the Low Countries, beginning on 10 May 1940, defeating primarily French forces.
• German forces outflanked the Maginot Line and pushed deeper into France as French forces began to collapse. German forces arrived in an undefended Paris on 14 June and their commanders met with French officials who were ready to stop the fights. Chief among these was Marshal Philippe Pétain who, contrary to the wishes of many Frenchmen, announced he would seek an armistice. 

• was a French general who reached the distinction of Marshal of France, and was later Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français), from 1940 to 1944.
• successful WWI soldier
• wanted to parley with the Germans--he feared that there wouldn't be any French left
• he was pushed into power 

• He was a defeatist
• He see Petain as a way for him to come to power
• Laval is the power behind Petain in Vichy
• Pushes a plan called collaboration
• Goes to Montoire in Southern France to negotiate with Hitler--brings Petain with him
• Vichy establishes strict anti-Semite laws
• The only government which carried out German policies for the Germans
• Vichy is the constitutional government 
• He's trying to out-Nazi the Nazis

• devout Catholic
• career officer
• French patriot
• escapes to North Africa, goes to Britain, and declares that they will fight for "Free France" 
• Leader of the Free France movement
• he loves France in a deep way
• condemned to death by Vichy
• believed in an idea of France that did not include collaboration with the Germans
• he wanted to maintain France as a great power

• Led by Charles De Gaulle 
• It was not recognized by the US during the war--they recognized Vichy as the government of France
• Supported by the US under the Lend-Lease Act
• US was always looking for a leader other than De Gaulle
• In 1945, the US recognized Free France

•  It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over Manchuria and Korea. 
• It's a reminder that the racial hierarchy is flawed.
• The Russians were poorly organized and the Japanese defeated them in a series of battles on land and at sea.

  The resulting campaigns, in which the Japanese military attained victory over the Russian forces arrayed against them, were unexpected by world observers. Over time, the consequences of these battles would transform the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japan's recent entry onto the world stage. 

• European powers control 84% of the world's surface
• 1945-1965 almost all of the empires go away
• 1975: even Portugal's empire is gone 

• Colonial administrators want the colonies to pay for themselves
• Bringing the good things to the colonies is expensive
• fiscal policies focus on getting subsistence peasants into the market
• Set up a system where the colonies produce raw materials, and the metropole finishes them.
• If you force the colony to produce one thing, then they have to buy stuff, which forces them to use money
• They can then be taxed, and create demand
• The empires force the subjects more and more into wage labor 

• traditional narratives had two groups: unified Europeans, and unified natives
• But this is quite right: some Europeans were opposed to the colonies, and some natives were welcoming to Euro civilization
• negritude 

• 1923 published
• book by Albert Sarraut
• Said that France needs to invest in the colonies
• The colonies will pay back, and be worth it
• France's economic woes will be solved by the colonies 

• After WWI, the policy changes from transient labor to permanent labor
• Workers now bring their families to stay
• This encourages Euro-style labor unions
• Unions had become a fixture in European labor market, which means that they were more open to the same in Africa
• The unions develop ties to the unions in Europe
• Colonial powers have to make concessions
• This is very expensive--teachers in Africa want to make as much as teachers in Marseille 

• after WWI, most see the colonies as an asset
• but there is increasing sense that the colonies were not working
• Europeans didn't think that the empires were going to end, but they felt that something wasn't right with them
•  

• was a poet, playwright, and politician from Martinique. He studied in Paris, where he discovered the black community and "rediscovered Africa". He saw la Négritude as the fact of being black, acceptance of this fact, and appreciation of the history, culture, and destiny of black people. He sought to recognize the collective colonial experience of Blacks - the slave trade and plantation system. He attempted to redefine it. Césaire's ideology defined the early years of la Négritude.

• was a Senegalese poet, politician, and cultural theorist who for two decades served as the first president of Senegal (1960–1980). 
• member of the negritude movement

• Africa and Asia can't return to what it was before colonialism, and they can't become Europe
• The Netherlands and Belgium go into exile in London during the war
• Indonesia was put under Japanese rule--this gives them control of rubber
• Indonesians come to power after WWII, and declare independence

• Belgian government goes into exile during the war
• Congo declares allegiance to Belgium
• remained in allied camp
• ruber goes to the allies
• After the war, the Belgians come back 

• Churchill is the PM at the beginning of the war, and throughout the war
• He always wanted to protect the empire
• He was only in power briefly after the war--replaced by Clement Attlee
•  During the war, most of the war positions were held by Tories, most of the domestic positions held by Labor
• Labor was not anti-colonial, but it was not as enthusiastic about the colonies as the Tories
• Labor is in power at the end of the war. Their attitude about the colonies will have important consequences for the empire

• Britain was working towards independence for the colonies, but France wanted to assimilate the natives into the French nation
• 40mill in France + 60mill in the colonies = 100mill Frenchmen
• There is a broad consensus in France that the colonies are good--even the communists are ok with the colonies
• But they cannot seem to bring others into French culture--this will make decolonization very different for the French

• US recognizes Vichy
• It seems like the legitimate government
• Charles de Gaulle was too prickly to work with
• He spent the war asserting French soverenigty 

• The Lend Lease act was an act where the United States had supported its allies.
• was the law that started a program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom, the USSR, Republic of China, Free France, and other Allied nations with materiel between 1941 and 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941,
• A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $639 billion today) worth of supplies were shipped
• This program was a decisive step away from non-interventionist policy, which had dominated United States foreign relations since the end of World War I, towards international involvement.  

• Begins creating democratic institutions
• 1945--draw up a new constitution
• De Gaulle discourages political parties, so his followers do not organize a party
• This allows other parties to gain power: communists, socialists, Christian democrats (MRP)
• De Gaulle goes into retirement
• French set up the 4th republic, which is very parliamentary

• Senator from Missouri
• Had gained prominence as head of the Truman committee which exposed fraud and corruption in wartime contracts
• He comes to power during a time of change in foreign policy at the State Department
• begins to shift policy towards empire

• Truman forms a vision of the Soviet Union as a power which can only be contained.

• It meant that it was important for the U.S. to have a strong Western Europe.

• It also meant that the British and French empires needed to be kept to help enforce a strong Europe.

• At the time of FDR and Truman, the State Department was small
• Foreign policy was changing
• Kennan rises quickly here--he is the first American expert on the Soviet Union
•  Truman was turning more and more to the State Department for advice
• Kennan argued that the Soviets could not be negotiated with
• In 1947, he wrote an article talking about containment
• He saw containment in cultural and economic terms

• Ruler of the SU in the 1920s
• His long-term goal was to support revolutions agains pro-capitalist societies
• Communism was the choice for many countries seeking independence
• SU was anti-colonial
• Decolonization was viewed by the USSR and the US as between communism and capitalism

• The UN comes into existence to try to prevent wars
• The most important institution is the Security Council, which has 5 permanent members
• At first, there are not a lot of members because there were not a lot of independent countries
• By the mid 1950s, this has changed--the role has shifted to one that helped countries in decolonization
•  

• They were native Africans and Asians who through education in the colonies accepted European values. They articulated what the demands of the colonies were. The abuses of the Empires never did go away with opposition to colonial rule.

• *The most important thing pushing for decolonization were the colonial subjects. They wanted new relationships between them and their imperial powers. It is important to emphasize that there were increasing number of subjects between the wars and after that were revising their relationships with the empires if not seeking independence from them altogether. 

• war changed the balance of power system after 1945. There were 5 to 7 major powers which then divided into two that balanced each other out

• The fate of European powers now depended on powers that were not pro-colonialism, but not anti-imperialism either

• The US for its entire history had been anti-colonial

• FDR was open about being anti-colonial

• This changes under Truman

• he U.S. because of its own origins had for its entire history anti-colonial.

The U.S. because of its own origins had for its entire history anti-colonial.

• in the mid-19th century, Britain had begun giving some autonomy to Canada, Australia, and South Africa--this is the beginning of Dominion status
• Britains holdings were divided into dominions and crown colonies
• The Commonwealth of Nations idea really gains traction at the turn of the century
• the idea is to move the colonies to more autonomy
• The Commonwealth is thought to be a free trading zone for the mutual prosperity of Britain and the colonies
• WWI spurrs the colonies to more autonomy--they fight at the behest of Britain, and then want to sign the peace treaties
• Balfour Declarations
• The idea is that of a procession: Britain at the head, the dominion colonies next
• It was clear that India was next--how was it to become independent?

1926

 It states, of the United Kingdom and the Dominions:

"They are autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."

• Passed on 11 December 1931,
• the act established legislative equality for the self-governing Dominions of the British Empire with the United Kingdom, thereby marking the effective legislative independence of these countries, either immediately or upon ratification.
• The Statute of Westminster's relevance today is that it sets the basis for the continuing relationship between the Commonwealth realms and the Crown.^[

• Dealing with demands from India for more independence
• There is some conflict over leadership
• Indian National Congress (1885) 
• All India Muslim League (1906)
• 1947--Atlee determines that Britain can no longer maintain its position in India

• 1885
• Largely claimed to speak for Hindus, but there were some Muslims
• Gandhi was a member of this party

• Studied law in Britain
• worked in SA helping the Indians there
• committed to attaining political goals through peace
• He saw the Indian empire as a source of progress 

• Principal Muslim leader
• Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century
• 1913 joins the Muslim League
• By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state. In that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation.
• founded Pakistan in 1947.^[ 

• 1945--Torries lose the election, and Atlee takes over
• Several problems
• The British economy was in shambles--it had been bombed for four years
• British were worried about Britain's future--could it continue to project power around the world?
• Communist revolution in Greece leads to Britain intervening for fear of losing access to the Suez--Atlee withdraws Britain from this conflict
• Americans take over for the British

• Sent to India by Clement Atlee in 1947
• He was the last Viceroy of India (1947) and the first Governor-General of the independent Union of India (1947–48), from which the modern Republic of India emerged in 1950.
• Indians had made it impossible to govern India
• He cannot conciliate the Muslims and the Hindus
• How do you protect minority rights?
• How do you keep India together?
• The British led Indian Army was disintegrating
• Montbatten established a Muslim region in the NE, and Pakistan in the NW 

• 1956-French and British become embroiled in a crisis in the Suez.
• Nasser wants the Egyptians to control it
• A British company owns it
• Egyptians seize it
• France and Britain launch a campaign
• It's condemned by the UN
• US does not help
• Disastrous for the empires 

•  was the second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death.
•  A colonel in the Egyptian Army, Nasser planned and led the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, which overthrew the monarchy of Farouk I.
•  Nasser's retaliatory move to nationalize the Suez Canal Company in 1956, a move welcomed by the Egyptian people. Consequently, the United Kingdom, France, and Israel invaded the Sinai and occupied the canal. After the tripartite forces withdrew from Egyptian territory amid international pressure, Nasser's political standing was significantly boosted.

• The Attlee Government was responsible for beginning the process of decolonisation of the British Empire, starting by granting independence to India.
• Attlee appointed Lord Louis Mountbatten to be the Viceroy of India when he first became Prime Minister
• In view of implacable demands by the political leadership of, in particular, the Islamic community in British India for a separate Muslim homeland, Mountbatten conceded the notion of two nations consisting of a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan (which incorporated East Pakistan, now Bangladesh).

• After the 1930s, European powers are trying to turn the transient laborers into settled laborers.
• This leads to increased labor union activities
• However, this leads to demands for better wages, which causes the colonies to become very expensive
• By the 1950s, even the colonial administrators are advising to get rid of the colonies
• The conservative government under Harold McMillan gets rid of nearly all of the Sub-Saharan colonies 
• 1960--McMillan in Johanesburg says that the "Winds Have Changed"
• By the early 60s, Britain is out of Sub-Saharan Africa (except for SA)

• Indochina had had an independence movement since WWI
• Ho Chi Minh (1890-1969)
• Between the wars he gets involved in the independence movement
• Indochinese are attracted to communism because of its emphasis on anti-colonialism
• No support from the SU
• Vietmin kick the Japanese out of Vietnam at the end of WWII
• French return in 1945 to reassert colonial rule
• 1946--beginning of the Indochinese colonial war

• Indochinese war for independence begins at the Gulf of Tonkin--Haiphong
• 1950--US encourages France to continue fighting as part of the world wide struggle against communism 
• 1950--China and the USSR recognize the Vietmihn government
• French create a puppet emperor: Bao Dai
• Vietnamese destroy the French at Diem Bien Phu in 1954
• French government falls--French are out in 1954
• US supports a militarized Bao Die government

• was a communist national independence coalition formed at Pac Bo on May 19, 1941.^[1] The Việt Minh initially formed to seek independence for Vietnam from the French Empire. When the Japanese occupation began, the Việt Minh opposed Japan with support from the United States and the Republic of China. After World War II, the Việt Minh opposed the re-occupation of Vietnam by France and later opposed South Vietnam and the United States in the Vietnam War.

• Vietnamese puppet emperor supported by the French
•  13th and final emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty, which was the last dynasty of Vietnam.^[1] From 1926 to 1945, he was king of Annam. During this period, Annam was a protectorate within French Indochina, covering the central two-thirds of the present-day Vietnam. Bảo Đại ascended the throne in 1932.

• was the climactic confrontation of the First Indochina War between the French Union's French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Viet Minh communist-nationalist revolutionaries. The battle occurred between March and May 1954 and culminated in a comprehensive French defeat that influenced negotiations over the future of Indochina at Geneva. 

• November 1, 1954 there are a series of attacks across Algeria
• Algerie Francaise 
• War initially took place in the countryside--a nasty guerilla war
• by 1954, the FLN controlled the countryside at night
• French try to start delivering on the promises of colonialism
• 1957--battle shifts to Algiers

• The idea that Algeria was a part of France
• This has broad appeal from the far right to the left--even the communists only had lukewarm support for Algerian independence 

• Pied noirs were the French settlers in Algeria
• French turn Algiers over to an elite group under Jacques Massu--they use torture to break the FLN
• They eventually cruch the FLN, and win the Battle of Algiers (1957)
• 1958, French government collapses--De Gaulle comes back in as the leader of the 5th Republic
• Begins to negotiate with the Algerians
• Signs the Evian Accords 1962
• Pied Noirs and the Harkis flee to France
• Algerian empire is over

• The Évian Accords comprise a treaty which was signed in 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the F.L.N. (Front de Libération nationale). The Accords put an end to the Algerian War with a formal cease-fire proclaimed for March 19, and formalized the idea of cooperative exchange between the two countries.

• Algerian Arabs who fought for the French 

• economic and cultural links have actually increased in the last 40-50 years
• until 1850, global trade was mostly within a few regions/zones. There is trade between the zones, but it is weak
• The growth of empires can be thought of as an imposition of a new trading regime on the world economy
• empires are basically tree-trade zones
• by the eve of WWI, there had been a significant increase in world trade, but the great majority of it was in Europe and North America

• 1945-1965 two things happen
• decolonization
• restructuring of trade within the Northern Hemisphere--basically it was the US with currency, and everyone else without
• The US is concerned with postwar politics--want to make sure that the communists do not make progress
• To do this, the US promotes economic growth in Europe 

• US kicks off the European Recovery Plane (=Marshall Plan)
• by the late 1950s, a treaty in Rome establishes the European Common Market--1957
• Europe is orienting away from the colonies, and towards itself
• by 1990, we see a reduction in barriers between trading zones
• GATT reduces tariffs--global system offers free trade

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was a multilateral agreement regulating international trade. According to its preamble, its purpose was the "substantial reduction of tariffs and other trade barriers and the elimination of preferences, on a reciprocal and mutually advantageous basis." It was negotiated during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Employment and was the outcome of the failure of negotiating governments to create the International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was signed in 1947 and lasted until 1994, when it was replaced by the World Trade Organization in 1995.

• By the end of the 1960s, what had been the colonial question had become the immigration issue
• Before 1973, economies had been expanding quickly, and they required labor--independence brought immgration rights for the natives
• Britain: Jamaica and India
• France: Indochina and a lot of North Africa
• 1973--oil embargo leads to a worldwide economic slowdown
• After 1973, governments move to restrict immigration 

• by the 1990s the immigration problem became an ethnicity problem
• until the 1880s, citizenship was a vague concept
• in the 1880s, we see an increase in the importance of identity paperstwo broad ways to determine citizenship
• jus soli--comes from where you are born
• jus sanguinis--get it from your parents 

• postcolonialism
• Beur--slanging from Verlan; means a person in France of North African decent
• Charef--Tea in the Harem