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Test 2 Psych
Chapters 4-7
207
Psychology
Undergraduate 1
10/15/2013

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Term
Consciousness
Definition
Personal awareness of mental activities, internal sensations, and the external environment
Term
Attention
Definition
The capacity to selectively focus awareness on particular stimuli in your external environment or on your internal thoughts or sensations
Term
Circadian Rhythm
Definition
A cycle or rhythm that is roughly 24 hours long: the cyclical daily fluctuations in biological and psychological processes
Term
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
Definition
A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms
Term
Melatonin
Definition
A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness
Term
Electroencephalograph
Definition
An instrument that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to measure and record the brain's electrical activity
Term
REM Sleep
Definition
Type of sleep during which rapid eye movements and dreaming usually occur and voluntary muscle activity is suppressed; also called active or paradoxical sleep
Term
NREM Sleep
Definition
Quiet, typically dreamless sleep in which rapid eye movements are absent; divided into four stages, also called quit sleep
Term
Sleep Paralysis
Definition
A temporary condition in which a person is unable to move upon awakening in the morning or during the night
Term
Beta Brain Waves
Definition
Brain-wave pattern associated with alert wakefulness
Term
Alpha Brain Waves
Definition
Brain-wave pattern associated with relaxed wakefulness and drowsiness
Term
Hypnagogic Hallucinations
Definition
Vivid sensory phenomena that occur during the onset of sleep
Term
Sleep Spindles
Definition
Short bursts of brain activity that characterize stage 2 NREM sleep
Term
K Complex
Definition
Single but large-highvoltage spike of brain activity that characterized stage 2 NREM sleep
Term
REM Rebound
Definition
Phenomenon in which a person who is deprived of REM sleep greatly increases the amount of time spent in REM sleep at the first opportunity
Term
Sleep Thinking
Definition
Vague, bland, thoughtlike ruminations about real life events that typically occur during NREM sleep; sleep mentation
Term
Dream
Definition
An unfolding sequence of thoughts, perceptions, and emotions that typically occurs during REM sleep and is experienced as a series of real life events
Term
Nightmare
Definition
A vivd and frightening or unpleasant anxiety dream that occurs during REM sleep
Term
Manifest Content
Definition
In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the elements of a dream that are consciously experienced and remembered by the dreamer
Term
Latent Content
Definition
In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious wishes, thoughts, and urges that are concealed in the manifest content of a dream
Term
Activation-Synthesis Model
Definition
Theory that brain activity during sleep produces dream images (activation), which are combined by the brain into a dream story (synthesis)
Term
Neurocognitive Model
Definition
Model of dreaming that emphasizes the continuity of waking and dreaming cognition and states that dreaming is like thinking under conditions of reduced sensory input and the absence of voluntary control
Term
Sleep Disorders
Definition
Serious and consistent sleep disturbances that interfere with daytime functioning and cause subjective distress
Term
Dyssomnias
Definition
Sleep disorders involving disruptions in amount, quality, or timing of sleep, includes insomnia, obstructive sleep apnea, and narcolepsy
Term
Parasomnias
Definition
Sleep disorders characterized by arousal or activation during sleep or sleep transitions, includes sleepwalking, sleep terrors, sleep sex
Term
Insomnia
Definition
A condition in which a person regularly experiences an inability to fall asleep, to stay asleep, or to feel adequately rested by sleep
Term
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Definition
Sleep disorder in which the person repeatedly stops breathing
Term
Narcolepsy
Definition
Sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into sleep throughout the day
Term
Cataplexy
Definition
A sudden loss of voluntary muscle strength and control that is usually triggered by an intense emotion
Term
Hypocretins
Definition
A special class of neurotransmitters produced during the daytime to maintain a steady state of wakefulness also called orexins
Term
Sleep Terrors
Definition
Sleep disturbance characterized by an episode of increased physiological arousal, intense fear and panic, frightening hallucinations, and no recall of episode the next morning that typically occurs during stage 3 or 4 of NREM sleep
Term
Sleepsex
Definition
Disorder involving abnormal sexual behaviors and experiences during sleep
Term
Sleepwalking
Definition
Disturbance characterized by an episode of walking or performing other actions during stage 3 or 4 of NREM sleep
Term
Sleep-Related Eating Disorder
Definition
Disorder in which the sleeper will sleepwalk and eat compulsively
Term
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
Definition
Disorder characterized by the brain's failure to suppress voluntary actions during REM sleep, resulting in the sleeper verbally and physically responding to the dream story
Term
Hypnosis
Definition
A cooperative social interaction in which the hypnotized person responds to the hypnotist's suggestions with changes in perception, memory, and behavior
Term
Posthypnotic Suggestion
Definition
A suggestion made during hypnosis that the person should carry out a specific instruction following the hypnotic session
Term
Posthypnotic Amnesia
Definition
The inability to recall specific information because of a hypnotic suggestion
Term
Hypermnesia
Definition
The supposed enhancement of a person's memory for past events through a hypnotic suggestion
Term
Dissociation
Definition
The splitting on consciousness into two or more simultaneous streams of mental activity
Term
Neodissociation Theory of Hypnosis
Definition
Theory proposed by Ernest Higlard that explains hypnotic effects as being due to the splitting of consciousness into two simultaneous streams of mental activity, only one of which the hypnotic participant is consciously aware of
Term
Hidden Observer
Definition
Hilgard's term for the hidden, or dissociated, stream of mental activity that continues during hypnosis
Term
Meditation
Definition
Any one of a number of sustained concentration techniques that focus attention and heighten awareness
Term
Psychoactive Drug
Definition
A drug that alters consciousness, perception, mood, and behavior
Term
Physical Dependence
Definition
A condition in which a person has physically adapted to a drug so that he or she must take the drug regularly in order to avoid withdrawal symptoms
Term
Dug Tolerance
Definition
A condition in which increasing amounts of a physically addictive drug are needed to produce the original, desired effect
Term
Withdrawal Symptoms
Definition
Unpleasant physical reactions, combined with intense drug cravings, that occur when a person abstains from a drug on which he or she is physically dependent
Term
Drug Rebound Effect
Definition
Withdrawal symptoms that are the opposite of a physically addictive drug's actions
Term
Drug Abuse
Definition
Recurrent drug use that results in disruptions in academic, social, or occupational functioning, or in legal or psychological problems
Term
Depressants
Definition
A category of psychoactive drugs that depress or inhibit brain activity
Term
Inhalants
Definition
Chemical substances that are inhaled to produce an alteration in consciousness
Term
Barbiturates
Definition
A category of depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and produce sleepiness
Term
Tranquilizers
Definition
Depressants that relieve anxiety
Term
Opiates
Definition
Psychoactive drugs that are chemically similar to morphine and have strong pain-relieving properties
Term
Stimulants
Definition
Psychoactive drugs that increase brain activity, arouse behavior, and increase mental alertness
Term
Caffeine
Definition
Stimulant found in coffee, tea, soda, chocolate, and medications
Term
Nicotine
Definition
Stimulant found in tobacco
Term
Amphetamines
Definition
Stimulants that arouse the central nervous system and suppress appetite
Term
Cocaine
Definition
Stimulant derived from coca tree
Term
Stimulant-Induced Psychosis
Definition
Schizophrenia-like symptoms that can occur as the result of prolonged amphetamine or cocaine use
Term
Psychedelic Drugs
Definition
Psychoactive drugs that create sensory and perceptual distortions, alter mood, and affect thinking
Term
Mescaline
Definition
Psychedelic drug that is derived from the peyote cactus
Term
LSD
Definition
Synthetic psychedelic drug
Term
Marijuana
Definition
Psychoactive drug derived from the hemp plant
Term
MDMA (Ecstasy)
Definition
Synthetic club drug that combines stimulant and mild psychedelic effects
Term
Dissociative Anesthetics
Definition
Class of drugs that reduce sensitivity to pain and produce feelings of detachment and dissociation - PCP and Ketamine
Term
Stimulus Control Therapy
Definition
Insomnia treatment involving specific guidelines to create a strict association between the bedroom and rapid sleep onset
Term
Learning
Definition
A process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience
Term
Conditioning
Definition
The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses
Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
The basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response
Term
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Definition
The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning
Term
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Definition
The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
Term
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Definition
A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response
Term
Conditioned Response (CR)
Definition
The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus
Term
Stimulus Generalization
Definition
The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other similar stimuli as well
Term
Stimulus Discrimination
Definition
The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other similar stimuli
Term
Higher Order Conditioning
Definition
Procedure in which a conditioned stimulus from one learning trial functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new trial
Term
Extinction (in Classical Conditioning)
Definition
Gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior. Occurs when conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
Term
Spontaneous Recovery
Definition
The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus
Term
Behaviorism
Definition
School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasizes the scientific study of observable behaviors
Term
Placebo Response
Definition
An individuals psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug
Term
Taste Aversion
Definition
A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food
Term
Biological Preparedness
Definition
In learning theory, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses
Term
Law of Effect
Definition
Learning principle from Thorndike - responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation
Term
Operant
Definition
Skinner's term for an actively emitted behavior that operates on the environment to produce consequences
Term
Operant Conditioning
Definition
The basic learning process that involves changing the probability that a response will be repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response
Term
Reinforcement
Definition
The occurrence of a stimulus or event following a response that increases the likelihood of that response being repeated
Term
Positive Reinforcement
Definition
A situation in which a response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations
Term
Negative Reinforcement
Definition
A situation in which a response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations
Term
Primary Reinforcer
Definition
A stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species, such as food, water, or other necessities
Term
Conditioned Reinforcer
Definition
A stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer
Term
Punishment
Definition
The presentation of a stimulus or event following a behavior that acts or decrease the likelihood of the behavior's being repeated
Term
Punishment by Application - Positive Punishment
Definition
A situation in which an operant is followed by the presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus
Term
Punishment by Removal - Negative Punishment
Definition
A situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus
Term
Discriminative Stimulus
Definition
A specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular response is more likely to be reinforced, and in the absence of which a particular response is not likely to be reinforced
Term
Operant Chamber or Skinner Box
Definition
The experimental apparatus invented by B.F. Skinner to study the relationship between environmental events and active behaviors
Term
Shaping
Definition
The operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed
Term
Continuous Reinforcement
Definition
A schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is followed by a reinforcer
Term
Partial Reinforcement
Definition
A situation in which the occurrence of a particular response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer
Term
Extinction (in Operant Conditioning)
Definition
The gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior. Occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer
Term
Partial Reinforcement Effect
Definition
The phenomenon in which behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement
Term
Schedule of Reinforcement
Definition
Delivery of a reinforcer according to a present pattern based on the number of responses or the time interval between responses
Term
Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule
Definition
Reinforcer is delivered after a fixed number of responses has occurred
Term
Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule
Definition
Reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial
Term
Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule
Definition
Reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after a preset time interval has elapsed
Term
Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule
Definition
Reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an average time interval, which varies unpredictably from trial to trial
Term
Behavior Modification
Definition
The application of learning principles to help people develop more effective or adaptive behaviors
Term
Cognitive Map
Definition
Tolman's term for the mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment
Term
Latent Learning
Definition
Tolman's term for leaning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available
Term
Learned Helplessness
Definition
A phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior
Term
Instinctive Drift
Definition
The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that can interfere with the performance of an operantly conditioned response
Term
Observational Learning
Definition
Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others
Term
Mirror Neurons
Definition
A type of neuron that activates both when an action is performed and when the same action is perceived
Term
Memory
Definition
The mental processes that enable you to retain and retrieve information over time
Term
Encoding
Definition
The process of transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system
Term
Storage
Definition
The process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time
Term
Retrieval
Definition
The process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it
Term
Stage Model of Memory
Definition
A model describing memory as consisting of three distinct stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
Term
Sensory Memory
Definition
The stage of memory that registers information from the environment and holds it for a very brief period of time
Term
Short-Term Memory
Definition
The active stage of memory in which information is stored for up to about 20 seconds
Term
Long-Term Memory
Definition
The stage of memory that represents the long-term storage of information
Term
Maintenance Rehearsal
Definition
The mental or verbal repetition of information in order to maintain it beyond the usual 20-second duration of short-term memory
Term
Chunking
Definition
Increasing the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit, or chunk
Term
Working Memory
Definition
The temporary storage and active, conscious manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving
Term
Elaborative Rehearsal
Definition
Rehearsal that involves focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term memory
Term
Procedural Memory
Definition
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions
Term
Episodic Memory
Definition
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular events
Term
Semantic Memory
Definition
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge, concepts, facts, and names
Term
Explicit Memory
Definition
Information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory
Term
Implicit Memory
Definition
Information or knowledge that affects behavior or task performance but cannot be consciously recollected; also called non-decalarative memory
Term
Clustering
Definition
Organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory
Term
Semantic Network Model
Definition
A model that describes units of information in long-term memory as being organized in a complex network of associations
Term
Retrieval
Definition
The process of accessing stored information
Term
Retrieval Cue
Definition
A clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stored in long-term memory
Term
Retrieval Cue Failure
Definition
The inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate of missing retrieval cues
Term
Tip-of-the-Tongue Experience
Definition
A memory phenomenon that involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory, but being temporarily unable to retrieve it
Term
Recall
Definition
A test of long-term memory that involves retrieving information without the aid of retrieval cues; also called free recall
Term
Cued Recall
Definition
A test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue
Term
Recognition
Definition
A test of long-term memory that involves identifying correct information out of several possible choices
Term
Serial Position Effect
Definition
The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle
Term
Encoding Specificity Principle
Definition
The principle that when the conditions of information retrieval are similar to the conditions of information encoding, retrieval is more likely to be successful
Term
Context Effect
Definition
The tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information
Term
Mood Congruence
Definition
An encoding specificity phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood
Term
Flashbulb Memory
Definition
The recall of very specific images or details surrounding a vivid, rare, or significant personal event, details may or may not be accurate
Term
Forgetting
Definition
The inability to recall information that was previously available
Term
Encoding Failure
Definition
The inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory
Term
Deja Vu Experience
Definition
A memory illusion characterized by brief but intense feelings of familiarity in a situation that has never been experienced before
Term
Source Memory or Source Monitoring
Definition
Memory for when, where, and how a particular experience or piece of information was acquired
Term
Prospective Memory
Definition
Remembering to do something in the future
Term
Decay Theory
Definition
The view that forgetting is due to normal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time
Term
Interference Theory
Definition
The theory that forgetting is caused by one memory competing with or replacing another
Term
Retroactive Interference
Definition
Forgetting in which a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory; backward-acting memory interference
Term
Proactive Interference
Definition
Forgetting in which an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory; forward-acting memory interference
Term
Suppression
Definition
Motivated forgetting that occurs consciously; a deliberate attempt to not think about and remember specific information
Term
Repression
Definition
Motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously; a memory that is blocked and unavailable to consciousness
Term
Misinformation Effect
Definition
A memory-distortion phenomenon in which a person's existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information
Term
Source Confusion
Definition
A memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten
Term
False Memory
Definition
A distorted or fabricated recollection of something that did not actually occur
Term
Schema
Definition
An organized cluster of information about a particular topic
Term
Script
Definition
A schema for the typical sequence of an everyday event
Term
Imagination Inflation
Definition
A memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred
Term
Memory Trace or Engram
Definition
The hypothetical brain changes associated with a particular stored memory
Term
Long-Term Potentiation
Definition
A long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between two neurons
Term
Amnesia
Definition
Severe memory loss
Term
Retrograde Amnesia
Definition
Loss of memory, especially for episodic information; backward-acting amnesia
Term
Memory Consolidation
Definition
The gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes
Term
Anterograde Amnesia
Definition
Loss of memory caused by the inability to store new memories; forward-acting amnesia
Term
Dementia
Definition
Progressive deterioration and impairment of memory, reasoning, and other cognitive functions occurring as the result of a disease or a condition
Term
Alzheimer's Disease
Definition
A progressing disease that destroys the brain's neurons, gradually impairing memory, thinking, language, and other cognitive functions, resulting in the complete inability to care for oneself; the most common cause of dementia
Term
Cognition
Definition
The mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge
Term
Thinking
Definition
The manipulation of mental representations of informations in order to draw inferences and conclusions
Term
Mental Image
Definition
A mental representation of objects or events that are not physically present
Term
Concept
Definition
A mental category of objects or ideas based on properties they share
Term
Formal Concept
Definition
A mental category that is formed by learning the rules or features that define it
Term
Natural Concept
Definition
A mental category that is formed as a result of everyday experience
Term
Prototype
Definition
The most typical instance of a particular concept
Term
Exemplars
Definition
Individuals instances of a concept or category, held in memory
Term
Problem Solving
Definition
Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available
Term
Trial and Error
Definition
A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work
Term
Algorithm
Definition
A problem-solving strategy that involves following a specific rule, procedure, or method that inevitably produces the correct solution
Term
Heuristic
Definition
A problem-solving strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions
Term
Insight
Definition
The sudden realization of how a problem can be solved
Term
Intuition
Definition
Coming to a conclusion or making a judgement without conscious awareness of the thought processes involved
Term
Functional Fixedness
Definition
The tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way
Term
Mental Set
Definition
The tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past
Term
Availability Heuristic
Definition
A strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated on the basis of how readily available other instances of the event are in memory
Term
Representativeness Heuristic
Definition
A strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event
Term
Language
Definition
A system or combing arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statements
Term
Linguistic Relativity Hypothese
Definition
The hypothesis that differences among languages cause differences in the thoughts of their speakers
Term
Animal Cognition or Comparative Cognition
Definition
The study of animal learning, memory, thinking, and language
Term
Intelligence
Definition
The global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment
Term
Mental Age
Definition
A measurement of intelligence in which an individual's mental is expressed in terms of the average abilities of a given age group
Term
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Definition
A measure of general intelligence derived by comparing an individual's score with the scores of others in the same age group
Term
Achievement Test
Definition
A test designed to measure a person's level of knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in a particular area
Term
Aptitude Test
Definition
A test designed to assess a person's capacity to benefit from education or training
Term
Standardization
Definition
The administration of a test to a large, representative sample of people under uniform conditions for the purpose of establishing norms
Term
Normal Curve or Normal Distribution
Definition
A bell-shaped distribution of individual differences in a normal population in which most scores cluster around the average score
Term
Reliability
Definition
The ability of a test to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions
Term
Validity
Definition
The ability of a test to measure what is intended to measure
Term
G Factor or General Intelligence
Definition
The notion of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person's overall performance on tests of mental ability
Term
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Definition
Robert Sternberg's theory that there are three distinct forms or intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical
Term
Autism
Definition
Behavioral syndrome associated with differences in brain functioning and sensory responses, and characterized by impaired social interaction, impaired verbal and nonverbal communication skills, repetitive or odd motor behaviors, and highly restricted interests and routines
Term
Asperger's Syndrome
Definition
Behavioral syndrome characterized by varying degrees of difficulty in social and conversational skills but normal-to-above-average intelligence and language development; often accompanied by obsessive preoccupation with particular topics or routines
Term
Mental Retardation
Definition
Disorder characterized by intellectual function that is significantly below average, usually defined as a measured IQ of 70 or below, and that is caused by brain injury, disease, or a genetic disorder
Term
Heritability
Definition
The percentage of variation within a given population that is due to heredity
Term
Stereotype Threat
Definition
A psychological predicament in which fear that you will be evaluated in terms of a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong creates anxiety and self-doubt, lowering performance in a particular domain that is important to you
Term
Creativity
Definition
A group of cognitive processes used to generate useful, original, and novel ideas or solutions to problems
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