often known as the visual store.

iconic storage is very usful for two reasons:

1. the mechanisms responsible for visual perception always operate on the icon rather than directly on the visual environment.
2. information remains in iconic memory for upwards of 500 ms and we can shift our attention to aspects of the information within iconic memeory in approximately 55 ms. this helps to ensure we atten to important information

a sensory store in which auditory information is briefly held.

ex. to be asked a questiion while your m ind was on something else. then you reply "what did you say" knowing you heard what they said.

recalling the items in any order.

in free recall refers to the finding that the last few items in a list are usually much better remembered in immediate recall than those from the middle of the list.

• studied the duration of short-termmemeory by using the task of remembering a three-letter stimulus while counting backwards by threes followered by recall in the correct order.
• forgetting was almost complete after 18 seconds presumably because unrehearsed information disappears rapidly from short-term memory through decay.

these memory stores differ in several ways:

1. temporal duration
2. storage capcity
3. forgetting mechanisms
4. effect of brain damage

1. oversimplified. assumed that short-term and long term stores are both unitary (always operates in a single, uniform way.)
2. short term stores act as a gateway between the sensory stores and long-term memory.
3. information in short-term memory represents the "contents of conciousness". this implies that only information processed consciously can be stored in long-term memory.
4. multi-store theorist assumed that most nformation is transferred to long-term memory via rehearsal . they also focused too much on structural aspects of memory rather than on memory processes.

assume that STM consists fo temporary activations of LTM representations or of representations of items that were recently perceived.

• STM task typically do not require relational memory

1. According to the unitary-store approach (but not the multi-store approach) amnesic patients can exhibit impaired STM under some circumstancs.
2. LIMITATIONS
3. oversimplified to argue that STM is only activated by LTM.
4. there is no convincing evidence that amnesic patients have impaired performance on relational memeory task dependent primarily on STM.
5. there is no evidence that decisively favours the unitary-store approach over the multiple-store approach.

Baddeley and Hich and BAddeley replaced the concept of the short term store with that of working memory.

working memory has 4 components:

• a modality-free central executive resembling attention
• a phonological loop holding info. in a phonological (speech-based) form
• a visuo-spatial sketchpad specizlised for spatial and visual coding
• an episodic buffer which is a temporary storage system that can hold and integrate info. from the phnological loop, the visuo-spatial sktchpad, and LTM.
• the most important part is the central executive: it has limited capacity, resembles attention and deals with any cognitively demanding task.
• the phonological loop & visuo-spatial sketchpad are slave systems.
• the phonological loop perseves the order in which words are presented, and the visuo-spatial sketchpad stores and manipulates spatial and visual information. all three components have limited capacity & are relatively independent of each other.

focused on the notion that verbal rehearsal is of central importance.

has two components:

1. a passive phnological store directly concerned with speech perception
2. an articulatory process linked to speech production that gives access to the phonological store

Visuo-Spatial sketchpad consist of two components:

1. vsual cache: stores information sabout visual form and colour
2. inner scribe: this processes spatial and movement information. it is involved in the rehearsal of information in the visual cache and transfer information from the visual cache to the central executive.

1. there is often little interference between visual and spatial tasks performed at the same time.
2. functional neuroimaging data suggest that the two components of the visuo-spatial sketchpad are located in different brain regions
3. some brain-damaged patients have dmage to the visual component but not to the spatial component

four functions of the central executive by baddeley (1996)

• switching of retriveal plans
• timesharing in dual task studies
• selective attention to certain stimuli while ignoring others
• temporary activation of LTM
• these are examples of executive processes

• inhibition function-this refers to one's ability to deliberately inhibit dominate, automatic, or prepotent responses when necessary.
• shifting function: refers to shifting back and forth betwen multiple task, operations or mental sets
• performance is slower in the task-switching condition, because attention has to be switched backwards and forwards between the two task. task switching involves the shifting function, which allows us to shift attention rapidly from one task to another.
• updating function- refers to updating and monitoring of working memory representations

• a condition in which damage to the frontal lobes causes impairments to the centrai executive component of working memory

stuss and alexander argued that the notion of a dysexecutive syndrome is flawed because it implies that brain damge to the frontal lobes typically damages all central executive functions of the central executive.

a task in which the participant has to name the colours in which words are printed

ex. blue colour but red background.

• task setting: involves planning and defined as the ability to set a stimulus-response relationship necessary in the early stages of learning to drive a car or planning a wedding.
• monitoring:the process of checking the task over time for quality control and the adjustment of behavior.
• energisation: this involves sustained attention or concentration and was defined as the process of initiation and sustaining of any response. without energisation maintaing performance over prolonged periods will waver

a component of working memory that is used to integrate and to store briefly information from the phnological loop, the visuo-sptial sketch pad, and LTM

• helps to provide the glue to integrate information within working memory.

levels of processing by Craik and Lockhard

they argued that attentional and perceptual processes at learning determine what information is stored in long-term memory

• craik and lockharts theorectical assumptions:

the level or depth of processing of a stimulus has a large effect on its memorability

deeper levels of analysis produce more elaborate, longer lasting and stronger memory traces than do shallow levels of analysis

learning complex infomration without the ability to provide conscious recollection what has been learned.

ex. learning to ride a bike

1. robustness: implicit systems are relatively unaffected by disorder (amnesia) affecting explicit systems
2. age independence: implicit learning is lttle influenced by age or developmental level
3. low variability: there are smaller individual differences in implicity learning and memory than in explicit learning and memory
4. IQ independence: performance on implicit tasks is relatively unaffected by IQ
5. commonality of process: implicit systems are common to most species

• our ability to remember what we are currently learning can be disrupted (interfered wth) by pervious learning (proactive interference) or by future learning (retroactive interference).

• leif and fetkewicz found that 80% of adult patients who admitted reporting false recovered memeories had therapists who made direct suggestions that they had been the victims of childhood sexual abuse. this suggests that recoved memories recalled inside therapy may be more likely to be false than those recalled outside therapy.
• Deese-roeddiger-mcdermott paradigm, known to produce false memories.

1. self produces an especially rich set of cues. you can easily link these cues with new information that you are trying to learn.
2. self-reference instructions encourage people to consider how their personal traits are related to one another
3. you rehearse material more frequently if it is associated with youself. yoru also more likely to use rich, complex rehearsal when you associate material with yourself.

1. we typically remember pleasant stimuli more accurately than ohter stimuli
2. we typically recall material more accureately if our mood matches the emotional nature of the material an effect called mood congruence

pleasant items are usually processed more efficiently and more accurately thanless pleasant items.

enhanced recall of pleasant items is part of a more general Pollyanna Principle.

1) autosuggestions-which arises from a child's internal sources

2) external suggestibility which arises from others influrncing the childs recollections