Term
| How does creativity differ from other forms of cognition? |
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Definition
| Guilford suggests that creativity involves divergent thinking. Tests used to measure creativity include the Unusual uses test, the Consequences test, and the Remote Associates Test. |
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Term
| How do imagery and concepts help us think? |
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Definition
| Imagery is helpful for learning new skills and for practicing those that we already know. it can also help us store and retrieve information. Concepts are categories that allow us to quickly comprehend information. Rules and definitions determine formal concepts, whereas natural concepts arise out of every day experiences. |
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Term
| How do we make decisions? |
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Definition
| Systematic processes involve considering all possible options prior to making a decision. sometimes we use priorities to eliminate some of these options to speed up the decision-making process. By contrast, heuristics, or "rules of thumb" allow us to make decisions quickly, with little effort. Framing causes us to weigh a decisions gains and losses, and intuition relies on "gut feelings". Anchoring on one piece of information rather than considering all of the factors that are relevant to a decision may cause distortions in thinking. |
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Term
| How do the basic approaches and obstacles to problem solving differ? |
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Definition
| Analogy, working backward, and means-end analysis are problem solving heuristics that may or may not lead to a correct solution. Analogy heuristics apply proven solutions to new problems. Working backward discovers the steps to solving a problem by first determining the solution. In means-end analysis, the current state is compared to the desired state, and a series of steps are proposed to close the gap between the two. An algorithm is a strategy that always yields the correct solution. Obstacles to problem solving include functional fixedness, the inability to see new uses for familiar objects, and mental set, using a previously successful problem-solving strategy without determining whether it is appropriate for a new problem. |
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Term
| How have computer scientists applied research on artificial intelligence? |
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Definition
| Artificial Neural Networks (ANN's) are used to simulate human thinking. They process information like human experts and learn from experience. ANN's are the basis for expert systems, computer programs that do the work of human decision makers. |
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Term
| What are the components of language? |
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Definition
| The components of language are 1) Phonemes, 2)Morphemes, 3)Syntax, 4)Semantics, 5)Pragmatics. Phonemes are the basis units of sound, and morphemes are the basic units of meaning. Syntax includes all of a language's rules or combining words into phrases and sentences. Semantics includes the rules for combining units of meaning such as morphemes, words, and sentences. Pragmatics includes the social and nonverbal aspects of language. |
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Term
| What is the evidence concerning animal communication? |
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Definition
| Chimpanzees can learn to use sign language to communicate. Birds that can vocalize have been taught to use words to communicate. for the most part, research indicates that animals string symbols together rather than create true sentences |
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Term
| How does language influence thinking? |
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Definition
| In general, thinking has a greater influence on language than language has on thinking. Whorf's linguistic relativity hypotheses has not been supported by research |
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Term
| How does bilingualism affect thinking and language development? |
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Definition
| People who learn a second language when they are younger than age 10 or 11 usually speak it without an accent. However, adolescents and adults know more about their own language, and they can use this knowledge when they are learning a second one. |
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Term
| How do psychologists define and classify motivation? |
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Definition
| Activation is the component of motivation in which an individual takes the first steps toward a goal. Persistence is the component of motivation that enables a person to continue to work toward the goal even when he/she encounters obstacles. The intensity component of motivation refers to the energy and attention a person must employ to reach a goal. Primary drives are unlearned biological motives, such as thirst and hunger. Social motives are learned from experience and interactions with others. with intrinsic motivation, an act is performed because it is satisfying or pleasurable. With extrinsic motivation, an act is performed to gain a reward or avert an undesired experience. |
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Term
| How do drive-reduction and arousal theory explain motivation? |
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Definition
| Drive-reduction theory suggests that a biological need creates an unpleasant state of emotional arousal that compels the organism to engage in behavior that will reduce the arousal level. Arousal theory suggests that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level or arousal |
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Term
| How do behavioral and social-cognitive theories explain work and achievement motivation? |
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Definition
| Behavioral techniques such as reinforcement and goal setting are used by industrial-organizational psychologists to enhance workers' motivation. Expectancy theory is a social-cognitive theory that focuses on workers' beliefs about the effectiveness and value of their efforts. Two other social-cognitive theories, need for achievement theory and goal orientation theory, help to explain achievement motivation |
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Term
| What are Maslow's views on motivation? |
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Definition
| According to Maslow, higher needs cannot be addressed until lower needs are met. Lower needs include both physiological needs (e.g. for food) and the need for safety. Once these are satisfied, behavior can be motivated by higher needs, such as the needs for belonging, esteem, and self-actualization |
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Term
| What theories have been proposed to explain emotion? |
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Definition
| The three components of emotions are the psychological arousal that accompanies the emotion, the cognitive appraisal of the stimulus or situation, and the outward behavioral expression of the emotion. According to the james-lange theory of emotion, environmental stimuli produce a physiological response, and then awareness of this response causes the emotion to be experienced. The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that emotion-provoking stimuli received by the senses are relayed simultaneously to the cerebral cortex, providing the mental experience of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, producing physiological arousal. The Schachter- Singer theory states that for an emotion to occur, 1) there must be a physiological arousal and 2) the person must perceive some reason for the arousal in order to label the emotion. According to the Lazarus Theory, an emotion-provoking stimulus triggers a cognitive appraisal, which is followed by the emotion and the physiological arousal. |
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Term
| What have affective neuroscientists learned about emotion and the brain? |
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Definition
| Affective neuroscientists have identified associations between emotions and different areas of the brain, and most believe a distinct neurological system underlies each emotion. The amygdala contributes to fear-based learning. The cortex monitors physiological cues associates with emotion and relates them to past experiences to help us make decisions. The anterior cingulate cortex suppresses emotional cues to help us control impulsivity. |
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Term
| How do humans express and influence emotion? |
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Definition
| The basic emotions (happiness, sadness, disgust, etc.) are those that are unlearned and universal and that emerge in children according to their biological timetable of development. Studies also show that there is variation across cultures in the ways emotions are elicited and regulated and how they are shared socially. The customs of an individual's culture determine when, where, and under what circumstances various emotions are exhibited. Children learn these rules as they mature so that, as adults, they will be able to suppress and exhibit emotions in accordance with the rules of their cultures. Violating a culture's display rules can cause a person's behavior to be interrupted as rude or offensive. The facial feedback hypothesis suggests that the muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions trigger corresponding emotions, (for example, smiling triggers happiness). Positive psychologists study the impact of positive emotional states on other aspects of functioning. |
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Term
| How do makes and females differ with regard to emotion? |
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Definition
| Men and women appear to manage emotions differently, women are more likely to feel hurt or disappointed after a betrayal or harsh criticism from another person, while men are more likely to just feel angry. Men and women also differ in their likeliness to express anger publicly. |
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Term
| How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen? |
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Definition
| Pavlov's discovery was an accident. It was discover through and experiment that delt with a dog salivating at the sound of a bell through conditioning |
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Term
| What causes classically conditioned responses to change? |
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Definition
| A NEUTRAL STIMULUS (a tone) elicits no salivation until it is repeatedly paired with the UNCONDITIONAL STIMULUS (food). After many pairings, the NEUTRAL STIMULUS (now called the conditioned stimulus) alone produces salivation. |
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Term
| What did Watson’s “Little Albert” experiment show? |
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Definition
| Fear could be classically conditioned |
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Term
| What are some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life? |
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Definition
| hunger pangs from smelling a fresh cookie, sound of a dental drill, advertisement. |
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Term
| What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior? |
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Definition
| the consequence or effect of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same in the future will be strengthened or weakened |
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Term
| How do generalization,and discriminative stimuli influence operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| In one kind of operant conditioning, shaping, complex behaviors are learned in small steps. In extinction, behaviors disappear when the consequences the formerly produced are no longer available. A discriminative stimulus is one that through its association with reinforcement signals learners about behaviors that are likely to be reinforced. |
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Term
| How do positive and negative reinforcement affect behavior? |
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Definition
| Both negative and positive reinforcement increase behavior. In positive reinforcement, a behavior occurs more frequently because it produces a desire consequence. In negative reinforcement, a behavior is learned because it makes an undesirable condition or stimulus go away |
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Term
| What are the four types of schedules of reinforcement? |
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Definition
| Fixed ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable interval |
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Term
| How does punishment affect behavior? |
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Definition
| Punishment happens when either an add or a removed consequence leads to a reduction in the frequency of a behavior. Generally, punishment does not help people develop more appropriate behaviors, and it can causes fear, anger, hostility, and aggression in the punished person. Punishment is most effective when it is given immediately after undesirable behavior, when it is consistently applied, and when it is just intense enough to suppress the behavior. |
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Term
| How do escape and avoidance learning occur? |
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Definition
| Avoidance learning is desirable when it leads to a beneficial response, such as buckling a seat belt to stop the annoying sound of a buzzer. It is maladaptive when it occurs in response to fear. For example fear of speaking to a group may lead you to skip class on the day your oral report is scheduled. |
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Term
| What are some applications of operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| Applications of operant conditioning include training animals to provide entertainment or to help physically challenged people, use biofeedback to gain control over internal physiological processes, and using behavior modification techniques to eliminate undesirable behavior and/or encourages desirable behavior in individuals or groups |
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Term
| How does insight affect learning? |
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Definition
| Insight is the sudden realization of the relationship of the elements in a problem situation that makes the solution apparent; this solution is easily learned and transformed to new problems |
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Term
| What did Tolman discover about the necessity of reinforcement? |
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Definition
| tolman demonstrated that rats could learn to run to the end of a maze just as quickly when allowed to explore it freely as when they were reinforced with food for getting to the end. His hypothesis was that the rats formed a cognitive map of the maze. |
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Term
| How do we learn by observing others? |
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Definition
| through observational learning- observing the consequences of the behaviors of others |
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Term
| What has research shown regarding learning from media? |
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Definition
| When the brain recives information from more than one source at a time, learning from one or all of te sources may be compromised. Violoence in both video games and telivision programs can induce feelins of hostilit and lessen veiwers' and players; capacity for empath. However, gamers may rovide young adult males with socially acceptable outlets for such feelings. Backfround knowledge and experience with reading print strongly influencs how much peole learn from reading online text. |
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Term
| How do the theories of Spearman, Thurstone, Gardner, and Sternberg differ? |
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Definition
| Spearman belived that intelligence is composed of a genral ability factor and a number of specific abilities. Gardner claims that there are eight kinds of intelligence, and sternberg's triarchic theory proposed that three types exist. |
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Term
| What did Binet, Terman, and Wechsler contribute to the study of intelligence? |
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Definition
| Binet developed the first standardized intelligence test. Terman adapted Binet's test for use in the USA and adopted Stern's " intelligence quotient or "IQ" as the scoring system for the new test. Wechsler developed tests for children and adults. Scores in Wechsler's test are based on diviation from age-based averages. |
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Term
| How do people at both ends of the IQ score continuum differ from those in the middle? |
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Definition
| IQ scored creat a bell shape curve. Half of the scores fall above or below the mean. Terman's studied showed that gifted individuals enjoy better physical and mental health annd more successful. Those who score below a 70 are classifed as having mental retardation. |
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Term
| What is the evidence for each side of the nature-nurture debate? |
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Definition
| Shows concernes in tha heredity and environment to variations of the test scores. In regards to twins, if raised togethere they found to be more alike in a certain trait than are fraternal twins raised togethere, then that trait is assumed to me more influenced by heredity. Adaption studies have also shown that infants from disadvantatded envioronment adopted into middle class families have higher IQs than infants who remain in disadvantages home. Early education may also raise scores. IQ scores have also been raising for the past 70 years. |
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Term
| How do theorists explain ethnic group differences in IQ scores? |
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Definition
| They can result from gentics, other argue poverty and lack of educational oppertuities, familiarity with testing situatuions and stereotype threats. Individuals in some groups experience sterotype threat when they take a test, a factor that depresss their scores. Differences in cultrual beilfes about the source and importance of intellectural ability may also contriute to group differences. |
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Term
| How do the cognitive abilities of males and females differ? |
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Definition
| Females do better in reading and writing. Men do better ib science and math and some spatial task. Females get higher grades and are more seld disciplined than males. |
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Term
| What are the components of emotional intelligence? |
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Definition
| Awareness of one's own emotions and abilty to manafe those emotions, self-emtivation, empathy, and the ability to handle relationships |
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Term
| How does creativity differ from other forms of cognition? |
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Definition
| Guilford suggests that creativity involvoes divergent thinking. Tests used to measure creativity include Unusual Uses tests, the Consequence test, and remote associates test |
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