Term
| Horizontal Gene Transfer (2) |
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Definition
Parasitic plants show very recent acquisition of some genes from the host plant species they parasitize;
sometimes genes even become part host-gene and part parasite gene. |
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Term
All eukaryotes contain ...
Some plants also contain... |
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Definition
| All eukaryotes contain hundreds of bacterial genes in their chromosomes (transferred from the ancestral mitochondrion); plants also contain hundreds of cyanobacteria genes (transferred from the chloroplast ancestor) |
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Term
| Methods for picking the best tree |
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Definition
.Maximum Parsimony
.Distance
.Maximum Likelihood |
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Term
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Definition
| the most parsimonious tree is the one that requires the fewest number of evolutionary events (fewest number of character changes mapped on the tree) |
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Term
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Definition
| Clustering by percent divergence (sometimes corrected for DNA data using mathematical models) |
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Term
Maximum Likelihood (and how are they favored)
Based on?
Most favored Modern Method? |
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Definition
| for molecular data, based on rules of how DNA changes over time (factors in mutation rates, base pair substitution probabilities, etc. using complex computer models); most favored modern method when DNA sequences are available |
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Term
| Branch lengths usually represent amount (2) |
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Definition
of change (usually genetic).
The longer the branch, the more change has occurred. (Fig. 26.12) |
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Term
| A phylogenetic tree can be linearized by |
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Definition
| calibrating the branch lengths to the fossil record; branches become proportional to time. |
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Term
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Definition
| calibrating the rate of DNA change to time (Fig. 26.19) |
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Term
| You need _____ to infer divergence times from a phylogeny |
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Definition
| calibration points (fossils) and/or relatively steady mutation rates |
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Term
| Example of problematic taxa: |
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Definition
| Parasitic plants don’t have a good fossil record and have a much higher mutation rate (sometimes more than 10 times higher) than photosynthetic plants, so you can’t fit them to a molecular clock |
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Term
3 Domains of life= Bacteria, Archaea, & Eukarya (Fig. 26.21)
Which is more primitive?
What ancestor did they descend from?
What characteristics did Bacteria and Archaea retain? |
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Definition
| None of the 3 is more primitive than the others- all are descended from the same common ancestor 3.5 billion years ago- but Bacteria and Archaea retain the ancestral characteristics of being tiny, single-celled, and having small genomes with no membrane-bound organelles |
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Term
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Definition
| to share a more recent common ancestor with Eukaryotes than Bacteria (Fig. 27.15) because of a number of synapomorphies (shared, derived characters) including: multiple RNA polymerases, introns in genes, and histones (see table 27.2) |
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Term
An alternate hypothesis is that early life
Domains?
Originated?
Best Represented as? |
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Definition
| freely exchanged genetic material prior to divergence of the 3 domains, and that Eukaryotes originated through an ancestral fusion of an Archaea with a Bacteria; this hypothesis is best represented as a ‘ring of life’ rather than a tree of life (Fig. 26.23) |
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Term
“Prokaryote” Basics (5)
Belong to what Domains?
Not considered?
Formaly lumped into?
Structue?
Most are?
Reproduction? |
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Definition
•Prokaryotes belong to two Domains: Bacteria and Archaea, and are NOT considered monophyletic (formerly lumped into the Kingdom “Monera” based on retained ancestral characteristics, not derived )
•No nuclei, usually a circular chromosome and often smaller plasmids- far less total DNA than eukaryotes
•Most are microscopic & unicellular, although some species form colonies
•Reproduce quickly by binary fission, some can divide every 1–3 hours
•Short generation times means rapid evolution |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| obtain energy from chemicals |
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Term
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Definition
| require CO2 as a carbon source |
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Term
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Definition
| require an organic nutrient as a carbon source |
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Term
| four major modes of nutrition |
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Definition
| photoautotrophy, chemoautotrophy, photoheterotrophy, and chemoheterotrophy |
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Term
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Definition
.Plants and other photosynthetic organisms
.energy originates from light, carbon comes from CO2 |
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Term
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Definition
energy and carbon both come from ingested organic compounds produced by other organisms
.Only Bacteria & Archaea are chemoautotrophs (common) or photoheterotrophs (rare) |
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Term
Bacteria are awesome (5)
Gave the environment____? gave us___? gave plants___?
Essential for?
Much of our current understanding of genetics and evolution comes from?
.Genetic engineering? |
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Definition
•CHEESE
•Gave the environment Oxygen, gave us mitochondria and gave plants chloroplasts
•Essential for ecosystems- e.g.g. soil: fixing nitrogen, decomposing complex molecules into simpler ones that can be used by other organisms; Deep sea vents: primary producers
•Much of our current understanding of genetics and evolution comes from the ease of studying bacterial genomes relative to our own
•Genetic engineering: bacteria used to produce enzymes, hormones, vitamins, other drugs, etc. and to clean up our messes |
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Term
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Definition
| Polysaccharide or protein coat |
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Term
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Definition
| protein hairs which allow cells to stick to substrate or other cells in a colony |
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Term
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Definition
| singlular= pilus)– longer than fimbriae, allow exchange of DNA |
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Term
Flagella (2)
Structure?
Different from?How?
How many per organism? |
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Definition
| “Propeller-like” structure for locomotion. Structurally and functionally different from eukaryotic flagella- can be one or many per organism. |
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Term
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Definition
causes exchange of genes within a species
.subsequent recombination can lead to new genetic combinations |
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Term
| Horizontal gene transfer through |
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Definition
| Transformation and Transduction |
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Term
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Definition
| Uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings |
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Term
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Definition
| transfer of DNA from one cell to another through a bacteriophage (viral) intermediate |
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Term
| Both Transformation and Transduction |
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Definition
| are widely taken advantage of in modern microbiology and the biotech industry |
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Term
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Definition
| Major dilineation of bacteria based on whether Peptidoglycan cell wall is on the outside of the cell (stains, Gram-positive) or whether it is between 2 layers of cell membrane (doesn’t stain, Gram-negative) |
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Term
Bacteria in the human gut
Human body averages?
How many species in gut and where they come from?
Poop?
E.coli and streptococci?
Organic molecules? |
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Definition
•The human body averages 100 trillion cells, but the gut alone contains 10X that number of microbes
•~500 species of micro-organisms within the human gut, but 99% come from 30-40 bacteria species
•Over half of the dry weight of poop
•E.coli and streptococci colonize within 40 hours of birth, create environment conducive to other bacteria
•Process organic molecules that we don’t inherently have the enzymes for, produce essential vitamins, aid in water absorption, inhibit pathogenic bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
•Tiny and variable in shape, look like bacteria but seem to be more closely related to Eukaryotes. Characteristics not visible under a microscope, such as genetics and cell membrane lipids, are distinctive from both bacteria and eukaryotes, so they are split off as their own Domain.
•Lots of extremophiles |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| produce methane under anaerobic conditions, poisoned by O2 sometimes cooperatively living in mixed colonies with bacteria- marshes, ruminant guts |
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Term
| New lineages are still being discovered through |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Prokaryotes=Bacteria+Archaea: not monophyletic since Archaea are closer to Eukaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
| single-celled eukaryotes and their close relatives; PARAPHYLETIC since Animals, Plants, and Fungi are also descendents of the common ancestor of protists (which is the same as the ancestor of all Eukaryotes) |
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Term
| Eukaryotes are now divided into 5 supergroups (new Kingdoms): |
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Definition
| Excavata, Chromalveolata, Rhizaria, Archaeplastida, & Unikonta, but support for some relationships between groups is still being debated (figure 28.3) |
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Term
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Definition
•Contains a range of flagellated single-celled organisms; mostly chemoheterotrophs, but Euglena have chloroplasts and are photosynthetic
•Most species harmless and inconsequential, but some of the chemoheterotrophs are major parasites of humans (Giardia, Trichomoniasis, African Sleeping Sickness, Chagas) |
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Term
Conifers
.spiecies diversty?
.places covered by conifers? |
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Definition
| lower species-diversity than flowing plants, but late areas of the planet are still coved by conifers (boreal sprue forests, redwood forest, southeastern U.S) |
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Term
Conifers
What sexes they produce and locations?
What type are most of them?
What are they important for?
What is the State flower of name?
Which do not make flowers? |
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Definition
.Produce male and female cones in separate locations on the same tree/ shrub
.Mot are 'evergreens' although some (Bald Cypress, tamarack) drop their leaves in winter
.Important for the timber industry (Loblolly Pine and Slash Pine are the big timber trees in GA
.White Pine cone and tassel (male cone) is the state flower of Maine; Gymnosperms do NOT make flowers |
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Term
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Definition
| conifers that drop their leaves in winter time |
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Term
| How are pine trees and conifers pollinated? |
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Definition
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Term
Cycads
Gender?
Oftern Reffered to as? |
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Definition
| Separate male and female plants- females make cones, often referred to as "Sago Pal' because of palm like leaves |
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Term
Ginkgo
Genders produce?
Which is exclusively in cultivation?
Fossils? |
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Definition
| Separate male and female trees; males are preferred as ornamental trees because females make fleshy, stinky seeds. 1 tree species (Ginkgo biloba) native to China, now exclusively in cultivation; fossils indistinguishable from modern Ginkgo date back 270mya |
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Term
Gnetophyts
Genders?
used for?
2 species? |
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Definition
Separate male and female plants (cones).
Ephedra (Morman Tea)-used for weight loss, decongestant, but also implicated in heart failure
Welwitschia mirabilis- namib desert, only 2 leaves |
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Term
angiosperms
.Reproductive structures?
.Diversity?
.Lineages? |
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Definition
flowering plants
produce reproductiv strutures called flowers and see-protecting fruis (=ovary surrounding one or more seeds, can be multiple ovareis per flower)
.Most widespread and diverse of all major plant groups- 87% of all plant species
.A few early-branching lineages, then most diversity in Monocots and Euidicots |
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Term
angiosperms
.Reproductive structures?
.Diversity?
.Lineages? |
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Definition
flowering plants
produce reproductiv strutures called flowers and see-protecting fruis (=ovary surrounding one or more seeds, can be multiple ovareis per flower)
.Most widespread and diverse of all major plant groups- 87% of all plant species
.A few early-branching lineages, then most diversity in Monocots and Euidicots |
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