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| 1) What is a chiefdom? Contrast this system to egalitarian societies in how social, political and economic systems are organized (be able to name at least 4 differences). |
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Definition
| Chiefdom: A chiefdom is a policy that centrally organizes a regional population of several thousand people and the position is usually heritable. There is some degree of social ranking and economic stratification within these societies (haves and have nots exist). Chiefdoms are usually associated with a redistribution of wealth or control of surplus production. Egalitarian systems are leaderless and usually involve smaller groups of people (100-150). There are few distinctions made between people, except those based on sex and age. There is no control or restricted access to resources or materials. Exchange is based on reciprocity (see page 281). A sharing ethic prevails and accumulation of wealth is not possible. |
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| 2) What are two major components of the plant domestication process? How can archaeologists tell domesticated varieties of plant remains from wild ones? |
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Definition
| The Domestication Process is the removal of plants from their natural habitat and the plants loss of its natural seeding ability. It is selective harvesting for desired characteristics. Early Farmers would only plant the seeds of the crops that were big and plentiful i.e. corn. Planted seeds from bigger cobs and kernels. |
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| 3) How would you characterize the architectural changes seen in the archaeological record of the Neolithic Demographic Transition in southwest Asia? |
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Definition
| Plant Domestication made for architectural changes in southwest Asia. Houses went from brush huts by nuclear families to semi subterranean structures (rectangular mud brick) in arched configuration. There was evidence of increased use of stone and mud brick for housing. |
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| 4) How does potato cultivation in present-day Peru differ from the practices of early 19th century Irish and many contemporary American farmers? What implications might these different practices have for sustaining these populations? |
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Definition
Peru = cultivated many different types of potatoes
Whereas Irish only cultivated one type of potato (monoculture) and when disease took hold of that one potato, all of the potatoes were poisoned and over 1 million people died. Not all potatoes. |
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| 5) What are some of the impacts that changes in sea level have had on human history? (Name and describe/explain at least 2) What impact might these changes have had on our ability to study the past? |
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Definition
| Land bridges created by changes in sea level due to creation of glaciers and ice sheets (Cordelleran, and Laurtentide). Land brides allowed for migration of humans and animals and now those land bridges are underwater so excavating those sites is nearly impossible. |
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| 6) What is the definition of a blade? Describe two advantages do blades offer over other stone tools? Why would the advent of blade-technology be considered relevant to learning about human cognition and imagination? |
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Definition
| A blade is a special kind of elongated flake with two parallel sides and a length at least twice the width of the piece. Regular manufacture of blades provided the Upper Paleolithic with an efficient way of producing mass quantities of cutting edge and they were also used as a blank to modify it later when you know what task it will be used for. More portable than carrying around a large core (shows forethrought of modern humans) |
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| 7) What are the two main ideas about the evolution of fully modern humans? How does the study of MtDNA fit into these ideas and what does it tell us? |
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Definition
Evolution by Natural selection. Lewis Henry Morgan had idea that cultures change and develop from accumulation of ideas with improved minds and morals. Evidence of skulls found with modern human MtDNA found in Herto Ethiopia. Oldest know modern human fossils.
MtDNA used as dna evidence that humans and neandertals crossbred. (Images, 114 – 115). Where was the emergence of humans or homosapiens first seen. MtDNA points to emergence first in Africa. |
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| 8) Why is the emergence of art important? When does it emerge and who is it associated with? What does it tell us about human cognition and past lifeways? |
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Definition
| Art emerged in the Upper Paleolithic age in Europe. It showed pictures of animals drawn deep in caves that suggested animals not a food source. Art represents an initial awakening of the creative sprit, an explosion of our aesthetic senses. These transformations in the minds of the people may also signify major changes in the way they viewed the world and organized their lives and society. |
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| 9) At the end of the Pleistocene, hunter-gatherer lifeways change dramatically. What are some of the main changes in diet/subsistence? What evidence is there for a broad spectrum diet and what resources became important? What other uniform changes do we see in the archaeological record in social relations (as reflected at sites such as Vedbaek)? |
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Definition
| At the end of the Pleistocene warmer climates crossed the globe. Hunter and Gatherers had diet switches to domesticated foods. There was less mobility and more permanent sites. Social and Politcal organization shifted and expansion in mortuary. Food storage increased as well as a wider range of foods. An increased use of specialized tools to exploit resources is seen as well as the first domesticated dog. Vedbaek, Denmark is home to a cemetery site that reflects shift in social and political organization from small mobile groups to large groups at permanent camps. |
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| 10) What can the study of grave goods tell archeologists about past social/political organization? How can we distinguish hereditary status from achieved status? What other evidence might archaeologist use to infer the existence of chiefdoms and transegalitarian societies? |
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Definition
| Based on what was buried with the grave archeologists can gain information about social status. Prestige or luxury items are symbols of power. Non practival items with limited distribution that are hard to obtain. Craft production either centralized or on village level. Craft Associated with heightened levels of interregional competition and warfare. Evidence of Ritual and modes of surplus mobilization. |
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| 11) Are there still people who live as hunter-gatherers? What can the study of these people tell us about the past? |
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Definition
| There are still few hunter and Gatherers today but they are predicted to be gone in less then 50 years. Understanding factors that shaped their behavior in the past can help us understand where we are going in the future. |
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| 12) How did Hopewell lifeways differ from those of the Mississippian peoples? Specifically, how did mounds function? What about social organization? What economic differences were there? |
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Definition
Among the Hopewell (Chiefdom system) mounds functioned largely (but not always) as burials. Different types of burial treatments existed and these seem to be linked to social status. Elite people were buried whole and intact while others were cremated. Among the Hopewell, hunter-gathering prevailed but indigenous domesticates were important (sunflower, marsh elder, goosefoot, chenopods) and possibly squash.
Both Hopewell, and Mississippian peoples have evidence of long distance trade for exotics including copper (Great Lakes region), pipestone, mica, obsidian, meteor iron, shell, tortoise shell, sharks teeth (Gulf Coast), grizzly bear teeth and claws (Montana). This trade network probably also involved the exchange of information and extended over a large area called the Hopewell Interaction Sphere (see page 278).
The Mississippian is viewed as an outgrowth of the Hopewell and consisted of multiple independent chiefdoms characterized by theocratic rule, elites had religious and social power. There is evidence of social stratification in burial treatment. Evidence from burials at sites such as Moundville shows that social status was ascribed, not achieved (see page 293). Commoners were buried in simple graves or grouped into cemeteries and the burials often included simple gifts (shell ornaments) and domestic items (ceramics or tools). High ranking people were buried with elaborate offerings (see page 293) and were buried in mounds or close to public buildings. Mounds served as burials sites but some also served as residential locations for the elite or a ceremonial locations. Several sites such as Monks Mound have palisades surrounding the town and elite people probably lived within these palisades while commoners lived outside. Mississippian culture was based on agricultural (floodwater farming along rivers) and wild resources. |
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| 13) Developments in Chaco Canyon had an enormous impact on a regional scale. What archaeological evidence is there for regional interaction? What sort of social/political system likely prevailed in Chaco? |
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Definition
| Chaco Canyon had a large regional interaction. Long distance trade is evident in the area and there are ancient roads leading through. Chaco outliers like Aztec look just like the Chacoan area are connected by pathways. Evidence of series of signal towers throughout canyon. Advanced water control devices and massive architecture. Political chiefdom 2 level structure. |
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| 14) Some of the earliest true states emerge in Mesoamerica. What defines a state? How does this differ from an empire? Were the Olmec a state society? How did the Olmec differ from the Aztec? |
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Definition
| A state has Internal specialization, is Hierarchically organized with hereditary systems. They consist of Large populations that have advancements in monumental architecture and developments in sciences. Political power is generally in 3 or more administrative levels. An empire is a union of dispersed territories, colonies, states, and unrelated peoples under on sovereign rule. The Olmec society is a state society. There is no evidence shown that proves San Lorenzo or La Venta controlled all the Olmec Heartland. |
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| 15) What do the finds at Qafzeh, Skhul, Tabun, Ahmud and Kebara cave tell us about the Neanderthals and modern humans? What do the remains from Shanidar Cave tell us about Neanderthal society? |
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Definition
| Evidence from these sites shows that fully modern people (Homo sapiens) appear in this area around 100,000 years ago at Qafzeh Cave and Skhul. However, there is good evidence from Tabun, Ahmud, Shanidar and Kebara Caves for Neanderthals at 70-60,000 years ago. This means these two distinct species coexisted and overlapped in time and space. Even though there is no evidence that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens occupied the same sites at exactly the same time, it implies they occupied the same region (at least some of the time) and invites questioning about their interaction. |
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| 16) What happened to the Neanderthals? Is there evidence that the Neanderthals inter-bred with modern humans? What do you think happened to the Neanderthals? |
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Definition
| Neanderthals are suspected to have died out based on competitive exclusion, inability to adapt, disease or warfare. The Tale of 5 caves proves that Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens co-existed with each other. They were living in the same area and most likely saw each other. There is likely in-breeding among Neanderthals as genomic sequencing shows similarity to modern humans. 1-4% of genome of people with European ancestry could be from Neanderthals. |
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