She swings, she hits, she's great she's benched

Shifting standards model

Participants played the role of co-ed softball team managers, who made team selections, position assignments, and judgments about a series of male and female players.

Stereotypes of male superiority as athletes lead to the use of shifting standards to judge athletic performance

Zero-sum behaviors (allocation of limited resources) show evidence of pro-male bias, whereas non-zero-sum behaviors (verbal and nonverbal reactions) show evidence of pro-female bias

Objective judgments are somewhat better predictors of zero-sum behaviors, whereas subjective judgments are better predictors of non-zerosum behaviors.

Organizational efforts to affirm sexual diversity: A cross-level examination

Examined the relationships between perceptions of treatment discrimination, identity management strategies (counterfeiting, avoiding, and integrating), group identity attitudes (preencounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization), and work-related attitudes for lesbian and gay males.

Gay males and lesbians faced less discrimination when affirmation policies were more prevalent at an organization.

When the work environment was perceived as equitable, gay and lesbian employees were more satisfied with their jobs and had higher organizational commitment, they were also more open about their sexual identities

Beyond “Homophobia”: Thinking About Sexual Prejudice and Stigma in the Twenty-First Century

This paper briefly describes the history and impact of homophobia.

The term’s limitations are discussed, including its underlying assumption that antigay prejudice is based mainly on fear and its inability to account for historical changes in how society regards homosexuality and heterosexuality as the bases for social identities.

sexual stigma (the shared knowledge of society’s negative regard for any nonheterosexual behavior, identity, relationship, or community)

heterosexism (the cultural ideology that perpetuates sexual stigma)

and sexual prejudice (individuals’ negative attitudes based on sexual orientation).

The concept of internalized homophobia is briefly considered.

How stigma interferes with mental health care

Stigma causes many people who would benefit from mental health services opt not to pursue them or fail to fully participate once they have begun.

It diminishes self-esteem and robs people of social opportunities.

Affirmative Action: Psychological Data and the Policy Debates

Data from many studies reveal that affirmative action as a policy has more benefits than costs.

Although the majority of pro-affirmative action arguments in the social sciences stress diversity, the authors' argument focuses on issues of merit.

The merit-based argument, grounded in empirical studies, concludes that the policy of affirmative action conforms to the American ideal of fairness and is a necessary policy.

Measuring Stigma Toward Mental Illness: Development and Application of the Mental Illness Stigma Scale

Aversive Racism

Dovidio & Gaertner address the paradox between egalitarian values and racisit traditions. Aversive racism is the idea of conflict between white's denial of personal prejudice and underlying unconscious negative feelings towards and beliefs about blacks. Basically, these negative feelings are not reflected out in the open and react towards blacks with uneasinness, disgust, and sometimes fear. Aversive racism may involve more positive reactions to whites than to blacks showing more of a pro-in-group rather than an anti-outgroup orientation. They explore the issues underlying aversive racism and its latent forms of bias that exists today. These forms of bias are more extensively seen when the social norms within a particular situation is unclear. They also make commentary on strategies to decrease implicit attitudes and beliefs as a way of eliminating aversive racism. One strategy is by redirecting in group bias. The Common In group Model is geared towards redirecting in groups and out groups to a single superordinate group in order to reduce intergroup bias and foster positive attidues to former outgroup members.

On the Nature of Prejudice: Automatic and Controlled Processes

Demonstrated implicit negative racial attitudes among Whites were largely disassociated from self-reported racial prejudice.

Demonstrated that explicit measures predicted deliberative race related responses, whereas the implicit measure predicted spontaneous responses.

Extended these findings to interracial interactions.

Self-reported racial attitudes primarily predicted the relative evaluations of Black and White interaction partners, whereas the response latency measure of implicit attitude primarily predicted differences in nonverbal behaviors.

The Continuing Significance of Race: Antiblack Discrimination in Public Places

Drawing primarily on 37 in-depth interviews with black middle-class respondents in several cities, I analyze public accommodations and other public-place discrimination.

I focus on three aspects:

the sites of discrimination

the character of discriminatory actions

the range of coping responses by blacks to discrimination.

Documenting substantial barriers facing middle-class black Americans today, I suggest the importance of the individual's and the group's accumulated discriminatory experiences for understanding the character and impact of modern racial discrimination.

Information control and personal identification Presented stigma as the management of a 'spoiled' identity due to the pressures social identity places on individual identity. (please add more here...)

Distinguishes from the discredited and discreditable. Discredited-stigma is already known. Must manage tensions that result from social contacts. Discreditable- stigma not known by others (concealable). Must handle tensions related to concealing (or passing) and deciding when and when not to reveal

The Disclosure Dilemma for Gay Men and Lesbians: “Coming Out” at Work

Self acceptance, the centrality of one’s identity, how “out” one is to friends and family, employer policies, and perceived employer gay-supportiveness were associated with disclosure behaviors at work for gay/lesbian employees.

Disclosing at work and working for an organization perceived to be more gay supportive was related to higher job satisfaction and lower job anxiety.

Reactions of coworkers to gay or lesbian workers mediated the relationship between disclosure and gay/lesbian workers’ job attitudes.

Helping the Handicapped: How Realistic is the Performance Feedback Received by the Physically Handicapped

Feedback to the able-bodied confederate was significantly different from that administered to handicapped confederates.

The difference in feedback was not because the subjects expected the handicapped confederate to perform less well than the able-bodied.

The "norm-to-be-kind" hypothesis was supported by the data.

Gay and Proud

Although confederates portrayed as homosexual were not discriminated against in formal ways relative to confederate applicants not presented as gay,they were responded to significantly more negatively in interpersonal ways.

Confronting sexual stigma and prejudice: Theory and practice

This article explores theoretical and applied questions that are relevant to social scientists' efforts to understand and confront sexual stigma.

A framework is presented for conceptualizing such stigma as a cultural phenomenon with structural and individual manifestations.

The latter include enacted stigma and felt stigma, as well as internalized stigma, which ecompasses self-stigma among sexual minorities and sexual prejudice among heterosexuals.

The framework highlights processes whereby heterosexism legitimates and perpetuates sexual stigma and the power differentials that it creates.

Discusses court cases - Lawrence VS Texas

Perceptions of the Impact of Negatively Valued Physical Characteristics on Social Interaction

Scar on face study

Individuals were led to believe that they were perceived as physically deviant in the eyes of an interactant and later commented on the interactants behaviors they thought were due to the deviance.

Persons who thought thaty they possessed negatively valued physical characteristics found strong reactivity to the deviance in the behavior of their interactant, whereas those with a more neutrally valued characteristic did not.

A self-fulfilling prophecy dynamic is not to blame for this effect.

Stop complaining! The social costs of making attributions to discrimination

An African American who attributed a failing test grade to discrimination was perceived as a complainer and was less favorably evaluated.

This occurred regardless of the objective likelihood that discrimination occurred, and only when the target made discrimination attributions.

The social costs of making attributions to discrimination may prevent stigmatized people from confronting the discrimination they face in their daily lives.

Attribution theory is applied to examine how inclusion of seemingly controllable disabilities (obesity) are viewed with respect to Equal Employment Opportunity.

Those seen as causing their own problems are viewed as less desirable as employees.

Out of Mind but Back in Sight: Stereotypes on the Rebound

Rebound Effect of unwanted stereotypic thoughts of others

Skinhead study

stereotype suppressors responded more pejoratively to a stereotyped target on a range of dependent measures.

Perceiving Personal Discrimination: The Role of Group Status and Legitimizing Ideology

ABSTRACT: It was hypothesized that relative group status and endorsement of ideologies that legitimize group status differences moderate attributions to discrimination in intergroup encounters.

Status-legitimacy hypothesis: the more members of low-status groups endorse the ideology of individual mobility, the less likely they are to attribute negative outcomes from higher status group members to discrimination.

In contrast, the more members of high-status groups endorse individual mobility, the more likely they are to attribute negative outcomes from lower status group members to discrimination.

Compensating for Stigma: Obese and Nonobese Women's Reactions to Being Visible

Partners rated obese women's social skills negatively when the women were visible (thus activating the partners'prejudice) but thought they were not.

Obese women rated themselves as more likable and socially skilled than nonobese women did when the women thought they were visible to female partners.

There were no obvious differences in the impressions created by their verbal or nonverbal behaviors.

Obese women who were aware of the need to compensate for their partners' reactions to their appearance were able to do so.

Contents and Correlates of Whites’ and Blacks’ Racial Attitudes

Participants wrote essays describing their racial attitudes that were later coded for recurring themes.

Whites and Blacks had similar positive themes, but diverged for negative themes.

White participants’ most frequently expressed negative attitudes were consistent with the tenets of modern racism theory.

These essay themes, as well as modern racism scores, were more strongly related to antiegalitarian sentiments than to the Protestant ethic.

Black participants’ negative attitudes were described in terms of reactions to perceived racism, and their essay themes were unrelated to both egalitarianism and the Protestant ethic.

Internal and External Motivation to Respond Without Prejudice

ABSTRACT: Empirical evidence is presented regarding the factor structure; reliability; and convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of separate measures of internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice.

The scales reliably measure largely independent constructs and have good convergent and discriminant validity.

Reported stereotype endorsement varies as a function of motivation and whether reports are made in private or publicly

Results are discussed in terms of their support for the internal-external distinction and the significance of this distinction for identifying factors that may either promote or thwart prejudice reduction.

Disclosure Disconnects: Antecedents and consequences of disclosing invisible stigmas across life domains

A model that examines the effects of individual and environmental factors on disclosure decisions across life domains is presented.

Individuals may disclose their stigma to varying degrees across life domains, and this inconsistency leads to disclosure disconnects.

Psychological states and outcomes associated with disclosure disconnects are examined and directions for future research are offered.

Examining Cues that signal mental illness

This study examined people's perceptions of mental illness by manipulating symptoms (positive vs. negative) and appreance (clean vs. unkempt).

Read vignettes then rated for : dangerousness, threat, and social avoidance.

When positive symptoms were present, the target was rated as more dangerous, threatening, and one to be avoided.

Targets who were unkempt were stigmatized more when negative symptoms were present.

Women stigmatized unkempt targets more than men. Findings suggest that mental illness is stigmatized.

Age discrimination in the workplace

Reviews lit. on age discrimination. Themes that come out of this lit suggest: 1) age is most meaningful when considered in context, 2) the age comparisons that take place in companies influence employment opportunities, 3) there are forces inside and outside the company that influence employment opportunities for older workers.

Authors developed a model of age discrimination which suggests that older workers are at a disadvantage when to other workers for most employment opportunities (e.g. selection & training). Suggest that social comparison (based on age) plays a major role in age discrimination.

Compensatory Strategies for Reducing Interpersonal Discrimination)

Looked at increased friendliness, individuating information and acknowledgement

Results revealed that compensatory strategies are successful in reducing interpersonal discrimination in job application contexts, and that such strategies benefit stigmatized individuals in ways that they likewise do not benefit nonstigmatized individuals.

A Threat in the Air

A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school.

Sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains

Societal pressures on these groups can frustrate this identification

Those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat which causes lower performance, disidentification.

person characteristics

environmental factors and

organizational characteristics

combine to affect the way disabled individuals are treated in organizations.

The relationships just noted are mediated by observers' cognitions and affective states.

The disabled person's responses feed back to modify observers* expectancies and organizational characteristics.

Sexism and Racism: Old-Fashioned and Modern Prejudices

Support was found for a distinction between old-fashioned and modern beliefs about women similar to results that have been presented for racism.

The former is characterized by endorsement of traditional gender roles, differential treatment of women and men, and stereotypes about lesser female competence.

Like modern racism, modern sexism is characterized by the denial of continued discrimination, antagonism toward women's demands, and lack of support for policies designed to help women (for example, in education and work).

The Effect of Physical Height on Workplace Success and Income:

The authors propose a theoretical model of the relationship between physical height and career success.

Physical height is significantly related to measures of social esteem, leader emergence, and performance.

Height was somewhat more strongly related to success for men than for women, although this difference was not significant.

Height is positively related to income after controlling for sex, age, and weight.

*Also, this article hypothesized and found a correlation between height and intelligence : (

The role of social norm clarity in the influenced expression of prejudice over time.

When social norm clarity was less ambigious as to how people should act with regard to predjudice (as was the case for Blacks, gays, and obese) individuals were less influenced by others

However, when social norms were more ambiguous (racists and ex-convicts), people were more likely to be influenced by others' opinions.

The results also showed that people displayed the least amount of prejudice in the condemn discrimination condition and the most amount of prejudice in the condone discrimination condition (time 1).

At time 2, there was support of a long-term social influence effect for responses about ex-convicts and Blacks.

The Stigma of Obesity in Customer Service: A Mechanism for Remediation and Bottom-Line Consequences of Interpersonal Discrimination

Actual and confederate obese shoppers in high-prejudice justification conditions faced more interpersonal discrimination than average-weight shoppers.

Adopting strategies that remove perceivers’ justifications for discriminating against obese individuals decreases the incidence of interpersonal discrimination.

There were negative bottom-line consequences of interpersonal discrimination.

*Justification - holding a Blizzard and says could never run a marathon

*Suppression - holding a Diet Coke and says is training to run a marathon

The Weight of Obesity in Evaluating Others: A Mere Proximity Effect

A male job applicant was rated more negatively when seen with an overweight compared to a normal weight female and that just being in the mere proximity of an overweight woman was enough to trigger stigmatization toward the male applicant.

Applicants seated next to heavy (vs. averageweight) individuals were denigrated consistently regardless of the perceived depth of the relationship, the participant’s anti-fat attitudes or gender, and whether or not positive information was presented concerning the woman.

*It would probably be important to remember that the effect was present even when there was no relationship between the two individuals

Understanding Heterosexism at Work: The Straight Problem

This chapter begins by defining heterosexism and homophobia. It discusses the complexities and dilemmas in constructing, operationalizing, measuring, and studying sexual orientation in the workplace. This chapter highlights research studies reporting discrimination against individuals based on sexual orientation. Examples of this research shows that heterosexists help gays and lesbians less than those who aren't prejudice do and gays and lesbians are subject to interpersonal discrimination during the application process. Methodological and conceptual issues include operationalizing sexual orientation in the literature, measuring and subtle discrimination, experience direct discrimination, but may still experience indirect discrimination. Also, because sexual orientation is a concealable stigma, it becomes hard to identify a target population. Finally, the authors note that there are biases in sexual orientation research such as grouping gay men and lesbian women together as a homogenous group.

Weighing the care: physicians’ reactions to the size of a patient

Using a standard medical procedure form, physicians indicated how long they would spend with the patient and which of 41 medical tests and procedures they would conduct. They also indicated their affective and behavioral reactions to the patient.

The weight of a patient significantly affected how physicians viewed and treated them.

Although physicians prescribed more tests for heavier patients, they simultaneously indicated that they would spend less time with them, and viewed them significantly more negatively on 12 of the 13 indices.

This study reveals that physicians continue to play an influential role in lowering the quality of healthcare that overweight and obese patients receive.

Weight-Based Discrimination in Employment: Psychological and Legal Aspects

Empirical research that focuses on the extent of bias against overweight individuals in employment contexts is reviewed and evaluated.

Current legal requirements relevant to weight-based discrimination in employment are identified and discussed, and those requirements are applied to the research findings to assess the extent to which the weight-based bias identified in the reviewed studies involves illegal discrimination.

Based on the results of the review of the research and legal literatures, future research directions are offered and practical implications for employers and policy makers are identified.

Workplace Discrimination Toward Persons with Disabilities: A Call for Some New Research Directions

This chapter reviews the literature on discrimination against people w/ disabilities, and showed that discrimination does still exist; however, research in the area is very inconclusive and scattered. Examining disability discrimination can be challenging b/c different disabilities may elicit different levels of discrimination. The chapter calls for additional research to examine disability issues from multiple perspectives (i.e. target and perceiver). Also calls for research to examine the self-identities of employees w/ disabilities.

When fit is fundamental: Performance evaluations and promotions of upper-level female and male managers

Using archival organizational data, the authors examined relationships of gender and type of position (i.e., line or staff) to performance evaluations of 448 upper-level managers, and relationships of performance evaluations to promotions during the subsequent 2 years.

Women in line jobs received lower performance ratings than women in staff jobs or men in either line or staff jobs.

Promoted women had received higher performance ratings than promoted men and performance ratings were more strongly related to promotions for women than men, suggesting that women were held to stricter standards for promotion.

Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI).

Hostile Sexism (HS)

Benevolent Sexism (BS).

HS and BS are hypothesized to encompass 3 sources of male ambivalence: Paternalism, Gender Differentiation, and Heterosexuality.

ASI scores predict ambivalent attitudes toward women

the HS scale correlates with negative attitudes toward and stereotypes about women

The BS scale (for nonstudent men only) correlates with positive attitudes and stereotypes about women.

Interracial interactions

Similar to interpersonal interactions, individuals' experiences in interracial interactions are often shaped by the beliefs individuals have about one another and their beliefs about how they will be perceived by their interaction partners.

In this chapter we examine interracial interactions from a perspective that highlights the interconnectedness that is often at the core of interpersonal interactions between members of different racial groups.

This perspective highlights that there are two people involved in dyadic interracial interactions and these two people influence each other's outcomes and experiences.

No Credit Where Credit Is Due: Attributional Rationalization of Women's Success in Male-Female Teams.

Explored how ambiguity about the source of a successful joint performance outcome promotes attributional rationalization, negatively affecting evaluations of women.

Participants read descriptions of a mixed-sex dyad's work and were asked to evaluate its male and female members.

They were rated as being less competent, less influential, and less likely to have played a leadership role in work on the task. Unless got feedback about individual performance, or task structure, or women were clearly competent.

Mental illness and reasonable accommodations at work: Definition of a mental disability under the ADA.

Mental illnesses do not affect the types of activities that courts consider in determining disability, their manifestations are harder to link to the underlying disorder, they appear not to limit a person's capacity to work, and their symptoms appear to be well controlled in the population of applicants.

I demonstrate the difficulties that can arise for persons who seek to work despite their mental illnesses.

People with mental illness have to convince courts that cognitive processing and participation in social experiences--which are often impaired by serious mental disorders--are major life activities.

Silence Is Not Golden: The Intrapersonal Consequences of Not Confronting Prejudice.

People either confront or don't

These two reactions are likely to lead to strikingly different inter- and intrapersonal consequences.

We examine the intrapersonal costs associated with not confronting perpetrators of prejudice and discrimination.

Targets of prejudice incur both affective and cognitive consequences as a result of not challenging prejudice, particularly when they think they should.

The decision to confront or not to confront will require a delicate balancing of both the interpersonal cost of confronting, as well as the intrapersonal costs of not confronting.

Combating organizational discrimination: some unintended consequences

Heilman suggests that there are negative impacts of afirmative action including negative impacts on targets' self-esteem. Suggests that AA is associated w/ stigma of incompetence, and that AA is often perceived as just preferential selectional based on demographic group membership. Opposite view of Crosby.

Using law and psychology to inform our knowledge of discrimination

Looks at three major models of discrimination law including 1) disparate treatment and dual processing, 2)reasonable accomodation, and 3)disparate impact. Found that current employment laws make overly simplistic assumptions about the nature of employment discrimination and the ways in which motivation can defeat prejudiced attitudes and biases in decision making. Suggests there needs to be a closer "marriage" of law and HR-I/O psych research to help better understand and alleviate employment discrimination.

The Content of our character

Race holding: Says many blacks use race-holding- process of using race to keep from looking at one's self. Talks about experiences in being black, and how "integration shock" can occur. This occurs in situations that disallow race as an excuse for personal shortcomings & therefore expose vulnerabilities. Says race holding is triggered by fear and used as a protective strategy.

Affrimative Action: says AA is more bad than good. Says AA allows for confusion b/w racial representation and racial development. Also says it is demoralizing to blacks and causes self-doubt. Says AA indirectly encourages blacks to exploit their own past vicitmization as a source of power and previlige. Thinks AA says racial preferences can do for us what we cannot do for ourselves.