- The scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport and exercise activities and the pratical application of that knowledge

- The study of the effect of psychological and emotional factors on sport + exercise participation + performance AND the effect of sport + exercise involvement on psychological + emotional factors

- Any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure beyond resting levels

- Usually measured in kilocalories (kcal) per unit of time

- Requires minimal physical effort and movement beyond rest

- Sitting, lounging, or lying down

- A subset of physical activity

- Planned, structured, repetitive bodily movements that someone engages in for the purpose of improving or maintaining one or more components of physical fitness or health

1) Understand effect of psychological factors on physical and motor performance

2) Understand effects of participation in physical activity on psychological development, health, and well-being

3) Understand the behavioral dynamics of exercise adoption and maintenance

- Human perfection means the ability to cope wiht the environment

- Physical ability will still always be needed to furnish the background of sanity, serenity, and cheerfulness to life, to give moreal elasticity t our disposition, to round off the wiry edge of our fretfulness, and make us good-humored and easy to approach

- elite athletes

- recreational athletes

- exercisers

- physically/mentall challenged

- Coaches

- Teachers

- Fitness leaders

- Physical rehabilitation

1) Teaching

2) Consulting

3) Research

1) Clinical Sport Psychologists

2) Educational Sports Psyc Specialists

- Licensed psychologists

- Trained to work with individuals with severe emotional disorders

- Trained to help athletes with problems such as eating disorders and substance abuse

Educational Sports Psyc Specialists

- Use "mental coach" approach to understand psychology of human omvement

- Have training in phys ed, kinesiology, or sports & exercise science

- Educate and increase athetes' and coaches' awareness of issues such as anxiety management and confidence development

1) Psychophysiological

2) Social-Psychological

3) Cognitive - Behavioral

- Examines underlying psychological processes as primary causese of behavior

- EX: biofeedback to elite cyclists

- Lance Armstrong & Chris Carmichael

- Behavior is determined by a complex interaction of the social environment and the personal makeup of the athlete or exerciser

EX: how a coach's leadership style and strategies foster team cohesion

- Some people react poorly to negative feedback while some love it

- Behavior is determined by both the environment AND thoughts (cognitions) & emotion

EX: studying differences in personality on performance in "pressure" situations at home vs away games

1) Human Nature level

2) Individual Group differences

3) Individual Uniqueness Level

- Every human being is

- like all others

- Every human being is

- like some others

- Every human being is

- like no others

-Behavior stems from unconscious dyamics stemming from past experience

- Resolve conflicts between personal needs and social requirements

- Take unconscious thoughts and make them conscious

- Free association (talk therapy)

- hypnosis

- dream analysis

- Behavior occurs as the result of a complex interplay between inner processes and environmental influences

- Triadic Reciprocal Determinism

- Bandura

- People are inherently good

- optimistic

- Behavior is explained by the need for growth and realizing full potential

- Freedom of choice, not pre-determination

- Here-and-now focus

- Phenomenology

- Part of humanistic perspective of personality

- How the person perceives and experiences the self and the world

1) Self-actualization and Growth needs

2) Esteem needs

3) Belongingness and Love

4) Safety Needs

5) Physiological Needs

- A habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling

- Defined by 

1) Frequency

2) Intensity

3) Range of situations

1) Frequency

2) Intensity

3) Range of Situations

1) Openness

2) Conscientiousness

3) Extraversion

4) Agreeableness

5) Neuroticism

- Active, talkative, assertive, seeking stimulation, and enjoying the company of others

- (vs Introversion)

- Courteous, flexible, good-natured, cooperative, tolerant, and compassionate

(vs Antagonistic/hostile/cynical)

- Experience unpleasant and negative emotions, such as fear, anxiousness, pessimism, sadness, and insecurity

(vs Stable Emotions)

- A statistical method for summarizing the findings of large numbers of individual studies

- file drawer effect

1) Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS)

2) Experience Seeking (ES)

3) Disinhibition (DIS)

4) Bordeom Susceptibility (BS)

- Seeking novel sensations and experiences through the mind and senses

(hippies)

- Seeking sensation through social activities

(partying/sex)

- Zuckerman 1994

- Higher scores = higher risk

- A personality trait defined by seeking of varied, novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, and the willingness to take physical, social, legal, and financial risks for the sake of such experiences

(Zuckerman, 1994)

- High in

- Openness

- Agreeableness

- Extraversion

In comparison to sports students, medium-risk sport participators are

- Subclass of personality traits

- Genetically inherited personality traits present in early childhood

- Emphasis on stable individual differences in mood or emotional response

- Buss & Plomin, 1984

1) Activity level

2) Sociability

 3) Emotionality

- subset of temperment

- Overall output of energy or behavior

- Vigor

- Tempo

- subset of Activity Level (temperment)

- intensity of behavior

- subset of activity level (temperment)

- speed or pace of behavior

- subset of temperment

- tendency to prefer being with other people rather than alone

- subset of temperment

- tendency to become physiologically aroused (easily and intensely) and experience negative affect in upsetting situations

- Extraversion predicted exercise behavior

- Activity level was a crucial factor in detemining exercise behavior of college students

- Active individuals exercise beyond planned intention b/c they seek active situations

- Extraverts seek out activity/stimulation to compensate for their lower basal rate of arousal

- Hans Eysenk

- The idea that SITUATIONS + PERSONALITY interact to determine behavior

EX:

- Reactive baby monkeys behavior is inherited from mothers and is brought out in certain situations

- Donovan McNabb = playoff loser

- Ben Rothlesberger = Superbowl hero

- inform about purpose and use

- have appropriate qualifications

- integrate results with ancillary information

- use sport & exercise specific tests, whenever possible

- use both state and trait measures

- provide feedback

- compare with baseline rather than norms

- Use clinical tests to study an average population of sport & exercise participants

- use tests for team personnel decisions

- use tests solely to predict sport & exercise behavior

- inform about purpose and use

- have appropriate qualifications

- integrate results with ancillary information

- Use clinical tests to study an average population of sport & exercise participants

- use tests for team personnel decisions

- use tests solely to predict sport & exercise behavior

- part of motivation

- Whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to situations

 - part of motivation

- How much effort an individual puts forth in a situation

- Integrated social-cognitive theory of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

- the degree to which people endorse their actions at the highest level of reflection and engage in the actions with a full sense of choice

- social factors --> psychological mediators --> motivation --> consequences

1) Success/Failure

2) Competition/Cooperation

3) Coach's Behavior

- social factor

- Experiences lead to the belief that one is competent and efficacious, or inverse

- efficacy = confidence in ability to do something

Competition/Cooperation (SDT)

which leads to internal and which leads to external?

- social factor

- Competition leads to social comparison (external)

- Cooperation leads to cooperation and contribution to team (internal)

- social factor

- Style can produce or undermine intrinsic motivation by reducing perceived autonomy

1) Competence

2) Autonomy

3) Relatedness

- psychological mediator

- Self-efficacy

 - beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments

- necessary but not sufficient for intrinsic motivation (need this and others)

- psychological mediator

- need to be in control and originate own behavioral outcomes

EX: give players choice to furhter motivate them

- psychological mediators

- Need to interact with others, to care for others, and have others care for you

- Need a CONNECTION with others

- comes from within

- engage freely in interested activities

- sense of control

- internal fun

- stimulation for fun

1) Towards knowledge

2) Towards accomplishment

3) Towards experiencing stimuli

- type of intrinsic motivation

- athletes desire/pleasure from learning new activity/idea

- type of intrinsic motivation

- enjoy the pleasure of doing something

- Amotivation

- Extrinsic

- Intrinsic

- Falls within extremes of amotivation and intrinsic motivation

- source is external as opposed to internal

- IM and EM are not dichotomous, but on a continuum

1) External

2) Introjected

3) Identified

4) Integrated

- type of extrinsic motivation

- a behavior performed only to obtain an external reward or to avoid punishment

- reinforcement of others

- type of extrinsic motivation

- Extrinsic motivation that is only partially internalized

- still perceiving as controlling

- person has negative emotion

- coersion internalized

- type of extrinsic motivation

- identifies with an extrinsic motivation to the degree that it is perceived as being his or her own

- out of own free will

- might no value activity itself, but has a goal

EX:

working out in off-season to perform better in-season

- type of extrinsic motivation

- an external behavior formerly considered to be controlling becomes fully assimilated and internally controoled by the athlete

- the behavior becomes personally valued and freely performed

1) Positive Affect

2) Positive Behavior Outcomes

 3) Burnout

- consequence of motivation

- Autonomous motivation is associated with decreased stress, anxiety, and self-criticism, and increased positive affect (vitality) <-- more energy

- consequence of motivation

- Greater persistence, less attrition (reduction)

- Reduced likelihood of burnout

- more robust effects

- consequence of extrinsic motivation

- psychological, emotional, physical withdrawal from formerly enjoyable activity

- in response to excessive stress or dissatisfaction over time

- low accomplishment

- low self-esteem

- stopped caring about sport and how they perform

Extraversion - Meta analysis

Small-Medium Effect

- Rhodes & Smith 2006

- Small-medium positive correlation between extraversion and physical activity levels

- As extraversion increases, so do physical activity levels

Neuroticism - Meta analysis

Small effect

- Rhodes & Smith, 2006

- small inverse relationship between neuroticism and physical activity level

- As neuroticism increases, physical activity level decreases

COnscientiousness - Meta analysis

Small effect

- Rhodes & Smith, 2006

- Small positive relationship between conscientiousness and physical activity

- MOtivation is multidimensional

- People are not always motivated by excitement and enjoyment of activity

- money, social recognitions and their occupation can also be factors/reasons

- Social context has a powerful effect on motivation

- Athlets of Bulgaria compete for judos (apartments, cars, sponsors)

- sometimes, less self-determined types of motivation (introjected/external) can promote better performances

1) controlling aspect

2) information aspect

- extrinsic rewards affecting intrinsic motivation

- may undermine IM

- locus of causality changes from internal to external

- now only do something to get paid

- extrinsic rewards affecting intrinsic motivation

- may enhance IM

- rewards serve as evidence of personal competence

1) Cognitive state anxiety

2) Somatic state anxiety

- full scholarship athletes scored higher on IM

- low dictatorship/high democracy = increased IM

- no differences in IM between scholarship and non-scholarship athletes

 - low autocratic/high feedback = increased IM

- Relatedness inversely associated with IM

(too tight a relationship takes away from IM)

Medic et al (2007)

1) Competence

2) Autonomy

3) Relatedness

Competence (SDT and coaching)

- application of SDT to coaching practices

- provide positive feedback

- expose athletes to optimal task and skill challenges

- application of SDT to coaching practices

- increase athlete's involvement in decision-making

- provide choice in all aspects of training and performance

- application of SDT to coaching practice

- do NOT get to know athletes well

- too tight a relationship undermines IM

- Originated by John Nicholls (1984)

- individuals seek to DEMONSTRATE COMPETENCE AND ABILITY in achievement situations

- "goal" = how one approaches achievement situations

- developmental framework focusing on childhood and early adolescence

2 ways Perceived Ability changes

(Achievement Goal Theory)

1) Naturally with development

2) Learning and cognitive restructuring

1) Task (Mastery) Goal Orientation

2) Ego (Performance) Goal Orientation

Task (Mastery) Goal Orientation (AGT)

- part of Achievement Goal Theory

- Goal is mastery of particular skill

- perceived ability is a function of perceived improvement from one point in time to the next

- enjoys feeling in mastering a skill

- part of Achievement Goal Theory

- dependent on outcomes + comparisons to others

- goal is to outperform others OR avoid demonstrating incompetence

- higher competence achieved when experiencing succes where others fail, or achieving success with the least amount of effort

Ego-oriented people do this deliberately as  a scape-goat

- purposefully put in minimal effort

- "I didn't study for exam but still did good" OR

"I didn't  study at all so not surprised"

- approach NORMATIVE competence

- strive to do better than others

- approach ABSOLUTE or INTRAPERSONAL competence

- striving to master a task

- avoid ABSOLUTE or INTRAPERSONAL incompetence

- striving to NOT do worse than one did previously

- avoid NORMATIVE incompetence

- striving to avoid doing worse than others

1st: 2-6 years old (task orientation)

2nd: 7-11 years old (ego orientation)

3rd: 12 years + (varied orientation)

- Orientation varies

- disposition depends on life experiences, personality characteristics, significant others, and situations

- Differentiated Goal Perspective

Differentiated Goal Perspective

- present in 3rd period of development of goal orientation

- child can clearly recognize difference between effort, ability, luck and outcome

1) Adaptive

2) Maladaptive

- athletes engage in moderately challenging tasks that allow them to demonstrate sustained effort and persistence, even in the face of failure

- generally exhibitied by task oriented, but can be exhibited by ego oriented with high perceived ability

- Athletes do not want to engage in a challenging task if they believe that can't be successful

- avoids competitive challenges due to fear of failure

- high for ego orientation

Maladaptive combination of goal orientations/perceived ability

- trying to play well and striving for victory

- avoiding taking an unfair advantage over the opponent

- reacting graciously following victory and defeat

- coordinating play and competitive impulse

- since high ego-oriented athlete's perception of competence is dependent on outperforming others, they are more likely to be unsportspersonlike

- temptation to pay unfairly and agressively, approval of behaviors to gain unfair advantage, lower moral functioning

- Task goal orientation associated positively with sportspersonship

- high levels of moral functioning, respect and concern for opponent, sportspersonship attitudes & orientations

- relates to how an individual displays characteristics of a goal orientation in a specific achievement situation

- task-involved

- ego-involved

1) Task-involved

2) Ego-involved

- minimal awareness of social evaluation

- moderate anxiety

- heightened awareness of social evaluation

- increased anxiety

1) Mastery/task focused climate

2) Performance/competitive climate

- receive positive reinforcement via

- hard work,

- demonstrated improvement,

- cooperation

- belief that each player's contribution is important

- perceive that poor performace or mistakes are punished

- high-ability athletes receive most attention/recognition

- competition between team members is encouraged

- study of soccer players and climate

- perceived mastery(task) climate predicted increased prosocial behavior

- perceived performance(ego) climate predicted increased antisocial behavior

1) Tasks

2) Authority

3) Reward

4) Grouping

5) Evaluation

6) Timing

- provide opportunities to participate actively in the learning process

- via decision making and monitoring personal progress

- reward for participation should focus upon individual fains and improvement

- focus away from social comparisons

- individuals should be placed in groups so that they can work on individual skills in a cooperative learning climate

- not all best in one group

- evaluation should involve numerous self-tests that focus upon effort and personal improvements

- not based on who wins

- timing is critical to the interaction of all of these conditions

- Tiger Woods takes off tourneys to practice and perfect his game

- originated by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

- epitome of intrinsic motivation

- a sense of seemingly effortless and intrinsically joyful movement

- often associated with performing one's best

- opposite of anxiety

- Must be balance of one's skill level and difficulty of task

- Autotelic experience

- a self-contained activity

- an activity that is done not with the expectation of some future benefit, but simply because the doing itself is the reward

- a blend of psychological and physiological activation

- varying in intensity along a continuum

- a NEGATIVE emotional state characterized by:

a) feelings of worry, nervousness, and apprehension

b) activation or arousal of the body

1)Trait anxiety

2) State anxiety

Trait anxiety

- moment-to-moment changes in feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension associated with arousal of the body

- Cognitive state anxiety

- Somatic state anxiety

1) Cognitive state anxiety

2) Somatic state anxiety

1) Primary appraisal

2) Secondary appraisal

3) Stress

Primary Appraisal

(Cognitive Appraisal Model of Stress)

Secondary Appraisal

(Cognitive appraisal model of stress)

1) Environmental Demand

(physical and psychological)

2) Individual's perception of the environmental demand

(amount of psychological or physical "threat" perceived)

3) Stress response

(physical and psychological)

4) Behavioral consequences

(performance or outcomes)

- physical and psychological

- Arousal

- state anxiety

- muscle tension

- attention changes

Common Sources of stress

and Precompetitive State anxiety

- Fear of performance failure

- Fear of physical harm

- Fear of negative social evaluation

- Event importance

- Disruption of well-learned routine

- Situation ambiguity/uncertainty

- trait anxiety

- self-esteem

- Inverted-U

- Cue Utilization

- Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

- Catastrophe Theory

- Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning

- Directionality Theory

- Yerkes/Dodson (1908)

- changes in performance are gradual as arousal increases and decreases

- the optimal level of arousal for a task depends on the complexity of the task and the skill level of the participant

- Different sports have different levels of optimal arousal

- Golf = low inverted-u curve

- Bench Pressing = high inverted-u curve

- Attentional focus

- Ability to focus on relevant information during competition, which includes the ability to both narrow and broaden attention when necessary

- Attention NARROWS as arousal INCREASES

- Narrowing of attention gates out IRRELEVANT and EVENTUALLY RELEVANT cues

- Fast-break in basketball, one gates out irrelevant cues (crowd) and focuses on relevant cues (where other players are)

 - JP Lossman gates out too many relevant cues

- Anxiety is composed of cognitive + somatic components

- 2 INDEPENDENT/SEPARATE CONSTRUCTS

1) NEGATIVE LINEAR relationship between COGNITIVE state anxiety and athletic performance

2)  INVERTED-U relationship between SOMATIC state anxiety and performance

- unique INTERACTION of physiological (somatic) arousal and cognitive anxiety on performance

- decrement is not incremental, but catastrophic

- must return to baseline arousal before being able to function well again (be taken out of game)

- buffer possible

- Hanin

- performance will be maximized when athletes' emotional states are at an optimal level

- IZOF varies across athletes (moderate arousal may not be optimal

- determine optimal pre-competitive anxiety (via Spielberg State Anxiety Inventory)

- Use arousal regulation techniques to stay within desired zone

- Focus has expanded from anxiety-only to emotions in general

- Optimal performance states include positive & negative emotions

- Graham Jones

- Interpretation of anxiety symptoms is important for understanding the anxiety-performance relationship

- Intensity 

- Directionality

- Perception of whether anxiety intensity is FACILITATIVE or DEBILITATIVE relative to a subsequent competitive event

- more important than intensity