• Two mirrow halves ossify at the mental symphysis (during first year)
• Corpus/body: arch of the mandible
• Chin: mental protruberance with depression at the center
• Arch extends posteriorly to the perpendicularly extended plate like "ramus"
• Superior border of ramus has two processes: coronoid (anterior) and condylar (posterior)

• Houses lower teeth
• Forms point of attachment for tongue and other musculatures
• Jaw movements change resonance

• Paired
• Forms upper jaw and roof of the mouth
• Floor and lateral walls of nasal cavity

• Maxillary Processes: Zygomatic, Frontal, Alveolar, and Palatine

• Unpaired, projects down from orbital plates
• Contributes to the walls of the orbital and nasal cavities

• Unpaired, anterior part of the skull

• Paired, rounded roof of the cranium

• Unpaired, houses the middle and inner ear mechanism

• Unpaired, base of the skull, back of ethmoid, anterior to foramen magnum.

• Air-filled spaces, lined by mucoperiosteum.
• Frontal: paired, drain into middle meatus of nasal cavity.
• Maxillary: largest, drain into middle meatus
• Ethmoid: anterior, middle and posterior; posterior opens into superior meatus, the other two open into the middle meatus
• Sphenoid: drain into the sphenoethmoid recess above and behind superior turbinate
• Function: adds to vocal resonance

• Buccal: Space between teeth and cheek. Shape and size depend on the status of lips and cheek/intra oral pressure
• Oral: Anterior and lateral borders-teeth and alveolar processes. Superior border: palate. Posterior border: palatoglossal arch. Interiorly: tongue.

• Port between oral and pharyngeal cavities
• Lateral wall: palatoglossal arch (anterior faucial pillars)
• Superior wall: soft palate
• Inferior wall: dorsum of the tongue

• Nasal Vestibule
• Chonchae: Interior (IC) Middle (MC) and Superior (SC)
• Meati: meatus between chonchae. Inferior, Middle and Superior

• Apart from olfaction and building resonance.
• Controls filters and controls temperature and humidity of the inhaled air.

Lips (Rima Oris)

• External :cutaneous
• Interal: mucous membrane
• Muscular and glandular layers are in between the external and internal layers
• Labeling of the lips: philtrum, cupid's bow, and vermillion zone.

• Superior labial frenulum: connects the inner surface of the upper lip to the alveolar ridge.
• Inferior lanial frenulum: Connects lower lip to the mandible at the mental symphisis.

• Bilabials
• Labiodentals
• Lip rounding/retraction
• Lip closure for intra oral pressure

• External: skin
• Internal: mucous membrane
• Facial muscle, muscles of mastication, glandular tissue, and fat are layered in between the external and interal membrane.
• Glands: salivary glands keep the oral cavity and vocal tract moist

• Dental morphology; Incisors, canines, premolars, and molars

• Spatial contact of the masticating surfaces (at rest) of the upper and lower teeth.
• Class I: Normal
• Class II: Malocclusion; receding chin
• Class III: Malocclusion; protruding chin

• Cross bite: maxillary teeth overlapped by mandibular teeth
• Open: anterior teeth fail to erupt sufficiently in comparison to the molars
• Closed: posterior teeth fail to erupt, or anterior teeth grow greater

• Fast acting muscle that assumes different configurations in rapid sequences.
• Helps in articulation by helping stop and divert the airflow, generate turbulence and modify resonance.
• Tongue is kept in place and moved by muscles from the roof of the mouth, base of the skull, mandible, hyoid bone and epiglottis.

• Longitudinal Sulcus: divides the dorsal part from the tip to anterior 2/3rd posteriorly.
• Sulcus Terminalis: Is the inverted V shaped border between the anterior 2/3rd

• Relationship between your upper and lower teeth, the first molar of the mandibular arch is one half tooth advanced of the maxillary molar.
• Class I is also known as neutroclusion and is considered the normal relationship between the molars of the dental arches.

• The first mandibular molars are retracted at least one tooth from the first maxillary molars.
•  This is sometimes the product of micrognathia a condition in which the mandible is small in relation to the maxillae
• Mandible is retracted

• Is identified if the first mandibular molar is advanced farther than one tooth beyond the first maxillary molar.
• The mandible is protruded

• Longitudinal sulcus: divides the dorsal part from the tip to anterior 2/3rd posteriorly.
• Sulcus terminalis: is the inverted V shaped border between the anterior 2/3rd and posterior 1/3rd part of the tongue. (This divides the tongue into two: palatine and pharyngeal)
• Foramen Caecum: Shallow groove; remnant of the thyroid gland during embryonic development.

• Superior longitudinal
• Inferior longitudinal
• Transverse
• Vertical
• **These muscles interact in a complex fashion to produce the rapid, delicate articulations needed for speech and nonspeech activities.**

• Intrinsic movements are those that make alterations in the shape of the tongue like rolling, lengthening and flattening. Intrinsic movements are important for articulation and speech production. They are also required for functions like whistling.

• Shortens tongue and turns tip upward
• Elevates, assists in retraction, or deviates the tip of the tongue
• If one superior longitudinal muscle is contracted without the other, it will pull the tongue toward the side of contraction.

• This muscle occupoes the lower sides of the tongue but is absent in the medial tongue base, which is occupied by the extrinsic genioglossus muscle.
• Shortens the tongue and pulls the tip downward and assists in the retraction of the tongue if co-contractied with the superior longitudinal.
• Unilateral contraction will cause the tongue to turn toward the contracted side and downward.
• Pulls tip of the tongue downward, assists in retraction, and deviates the tongue.

• provide a mechanism for narrowing the tongue
• Pulls the edges of the tongue toward the midline, effectively narrowing the tongue.

• Run at right angles to the transverse muscles and flatten the tongue.
• The fivers of the transverse and vertical muscles interweave.
• Contraction of the vertical muscles pulls the tongue down into the floor of the mouth.

• Genioglossus
• Hypglossus
• Styloglossus
• Chondroglossus
• Palatoglossus
• **While the intrinsic muscles are responsible for precise articulatory performance, the extrinsic muscles of the tongue tend to move the tongue as a unit. It appears that they set the general posture for articulation with the intrinsic muscles performing the refined perfection of that action.**

• Is the prime mover of the tongue, making up most of its deeper bulk.
• Anterior fibers retract the tongue
• Posterior fibers protrude the tongue
• Anterior and posterior fibers depress the tongue

• Pulls the sides of the tongue down, in direct antagonism to the palatoglossus

• Pulls tongue upward and backwards

• Often considered to be part of the hyoglossus muscle
• It is a depressor of the tongue

• Serves the dual purpose of depressing the soft palate or elevating the back of the tongue
• The palatoglossus make up the anterior faucial pillar

• Help in chewing
• Articulation
• Resonance

• Digastricus
• Mylohyoid
• Geniohyoid
• Lateral Pterygoid

• Masseter
• Temporalis
• Medial Pterygoid

• glossopalatine
• pharyngopalatine

• levator palati
• uvular

• tensor palati

• Only three speech sounds in english require that the soft palate be depressed /m/ /n/ and "ing"
• During most speaking time and swallowing, the soft palate is actively elevated.
• The palatal aponeurosis makes up the mid-front portion of the soft palate.
• The palatal aponeurosis divides around musculus uvulae but serves as the point of insertion for other muscles of the soft palate.

• Making up the bulk of the soft palate
• Primary elevator of the soft palate
• Contraction elevates and retracts the posterior velum

• The uvula makes up the medial and posterior portions of the soft palate, and the musculus uvulae is the muscle embodied within this structure.
• Contraction of the uvula shortens the soft palate, effectively bunching it up.

• Tensor of the soft palate, as well as the dilator of the eustachian tube.
• Primary to function as a dilator of the eustachian tube.
• Contraction of the tensor veli palatini dilate or OPENS the eustachian tube, thereby permitting aeration (exchange of air) of the middle ear cavity. 

• Dual purpose
• Either help to elevate the tongue or depress the soft palate

• This muscle will assist in narrowing the pharyngeal cavity, as well as lowering the soft palate.
  
• It may also help to elevate the larynx

• Superior pharyngeal constrictor
• middle pharyngeal constrictor
• inferior pharyngeal constrictor
• ***These muscles are important for velopharyngeal functions***

• Pulls pharyngeal wall forward; consticts pharngeal diameter.
• Contraction of this muscle pulls the pharyngeal wall forward and consticts the pharyngeal diameter, an especially prominent movement during swallowing.
  
• 
  It assists in effecting the velopharyngeal seal and thereby prevents the bolus from entering the nasopharynx.

• Narrows diameter of the pharynx

• Is an important muscle for swallowing and is the structure set into vibration during esophageal speech.
• Contraction reduces the diameter of the lower pharynx.
• Constricts superior orifice of esophagus.
• Consists of two portions; cricopharyngeus & thyropharyngeus.

• Anterior and lateral borders: teeth and alveolar processes
• Superior border: palate
• Posterior border: palatoglossal arch
• Inferiorly: tongue

• Is the most significant cavity of the speech mechanism, as it undergoes the most change during the speech act.
• The oral cavity extends from the oral opening or mouth, in front to the faucial pillars in back.
• The oral opening is strongly involved in articulation, being the point of exit of sound for all orally emitted phonemes.

• On either side of the soft palate and continuous with it are two prominent bands of tissue. These are the anterior and posterior faucial pillars.
• Between the pillars is the palatine tonsils.

• Space between teeth and cheek
• Shape and size depend on the status of lips and cheek/intra oral pressure

• Lies lateral to the oral cavity
• Composed ot the space between the posterior teeth and the cheeks of the face.
• This space plays a rold in oral resonance when the mandible is depressed to expose it, is incolced in high-pressure consonant production and is the source of the distortion heard in the misarticulation known as the lateral /s/.

• Nasopharynx: extends from the upper portion of the nasal cavity to the soft palate
• Oropharynx: extends from the soft palate to the hyoid bone
• Laryngopharynx: extends from the oropharynx to the entrance of the esophagus

• The passage that connects the oropharynx and the nasopharynx.
• It can be closed by: Elevation and posterior movements of the velum and some forward and medial movements of the posterior and lateral pharyngeal walls. These combined movements resemble a sphincterlike action.

• Closure of the passageway between the oral and nasal cavities is important for three reasons
• 1. During the promary function of swallowing, the velopharyngeal port closes as the bolus of food or drink passes from the oral into the pharyngeal cavity.
• 2. Closure of the velopharyngeal port is important for the production of speech sounds. Nasal sounds are produced when the port is open (/n/ / m/ "ing") while nonnasal sounds are produced when the port is closed.
• Hypernasality refers to an excessive amount of perceived nasal cavity resonance dur to lack of necessary velopharymgeal port closure. (cleft palate or dysarthria)

• Orbicularis Oris
• Transverse Facial Muscle
• Angular Facial Muscle
• Vertical Facial Muscle
• Parallel Facial Muscle
• **Function of these muscles is to enhance gestures for nonverbal communication**