Chapter 1

Thinking about communication: Definitions, Models and Ethics

Social

Symbols

Environment

Process

Meaning

SPEMS

an arbitrary label or representation of phenomena.

i.e. words are symbols for concepts and things

concrete symbols represent objects.

abstract symbols represent ideas or thoughts.

i.e. concrete- an avatar of yourself

abstract- the notion of love

situation or context in which communication occurs.

i.e. time, place, historical period, etc.

Communication Models

-communication as a systematic, linear process

source- maker of the message

message- verbal and nonverbal

receiver

channel- the message goes through this 

noise- effects the flow of communication/distracts

we condemn communication that degrades individual and humanity.

we're committed to courageous expression of personal convictions in pursuit of fairness and justice.

respect privacy and confidentiality

we accept responsibility for the short and long term consequences of our communication expect the same of others.

-fosters critical thinking skills

-aids in understanding the scope of research

-helps us understand life experiences

-essential to becoming aware of who we are and how we function in the world.

Chapter 2

focuses on most types of public speaking or public address and their roles in society.

i.e

persuasion in public address

the effect of emotion on audiences

how audiences are influenced by mass media appeals

"talk as practical art"

deals with the study of signs and their role in society; the primary focus is on meaning making.

meaning is achieved when a a common language is created and shared among people. 

some topics:

how words change as ppl using them change

the multiple meanings associated wth words and how they come about.

looks at a message or communicative situation from personal perspective.

works to eliminate biases or personal beliefs to uncover the authenticity of a message or dialogue.

some topics :

how ppl from different backgrounds or ethnicities interpret a message

how gender impacts communivative styles

considers the study of communication as an information science.

Looks at the broader systematic nature of communication as a process and focuses on elements within that process.

Some topics:

how noise interferes with message understanding/processing

how technical ability influences communication in computer-mediated situations.

Seeks to understand the causes of behavior as a result of some aspect of communication.

Focuses mainly on the underlying relationships between variables that exist and how those variables differ depending on the individual situation.

Some topics: how messages construction influences recall of a message

how entertainment choices influence mood.

Existing shared culture and social structures which are already in place influence communication.

Scholars in this area advocate for the co-creation of social reality to encourage individual points of view.

Some topics: breaking through the established patterns of communication to highlight individual experience in the communication process.

Studying the development of "cliques"in school.

Focuses on the current social order in society and how it negatively impacts society.

seeks to expose the underlying beliefs and values within a society that impact decision making and actions.

some topics: how consolidation of media ownership impacts entertainment choices.

how the environment is used to drive consumerism.

-the number of ppl involved

-the space between those people

-the type of feedback available

-the channels of communication exist within the environment

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Small Group

Organizational

Public/Rhetorical

Mass/Media

Cultural

communication with oneself.

-how we make sense of ourselves and our actions

communication with another person

(usually face-to-face)

- how we form and maintain relationships w/ others

communication with more than one person usually 3-5ppl

-how small groups form and function

communication among a larger often extended environment.

-how an organization functions as an entity and the variety of relationships and types of communication that occur within

communication to a large group or audience (usually in person)

-usually involves speechmaking or dissemination of a specific type of message from one to many.

Communication to a very large audience through some type of mediated format.

-tv, radio, internet, newspaper

communication between people whose cultural backgrounds are different

-this type of communication does not necessarily mean different countries

i.e. ppl from different parts of the US have different cultural backgrounds.

Chapter 3

an abstract system of conepts that, through the relationship of these concepts, help us to understand a phenomenon

-a process of developing ideas that allow us to explain (and understand) how and why events occur

-the process of systematically formulating and organizing ideas to understand a particular phenonmenon.

level of generality of a theory

components of a theory

goal of a theory

explains how broadly a theory can be applied.

levels in which theories can be studied:
-grand theories

-mid-range theories

-narrow theories

theories are made of several key parts that work together

Concepts- words or terms that label the most important parts of an aspect of a theory c/b nominal or real

nominal- concepts explain things that may not be observable

real- concepts explain things that are directly observable

Relationships- describe the way in which the concepts of a theory relate to one another

Explanation: why something occurs the way it does

Understanding: being aware of how the concepts that explain the behavior relate to one another

Prediction: recognizing the patterns that form from the relationships between concepts in a theory

Social change: empowering an individual group or society through theoretical discoveries.

SPUE

Hempel (1952) envisions theory as an abstract overarching network of threads and knots that are connected to concrete experiments and observations

*Yerby*-  considers theory to be a lens through which we can view a situation, event or behavior.

object truths exist

the process of inquiry c/b value neutral

control of key concept is important

truth is subjective and co-created

researcher is part of the process

rich descriptions about subjects is important

Knowledge is shaped by those in power

it's the researchers responsibility to uncover the power structures that exist

The Covering Law Approach

-theories conform to a general law

The Rules Approach

-human behavior is governed by rules

The Systems Approach

-human behavior is constrained w/in a system that has limits

searches of law like generalizations in human communication (cause-effect of if x then y)

have explicit definitions and boundaries

often result in hypotheses that are testable

searches for an understanding of how people regulate their interactions with others.

Human behavior can be classified into 2 categories:

-movements- activities related to stimulus-response behaviors

-actions- activities involving intentional choice

the rules that govern behavior change as interactions change and evolve

Views human behavior as the result of a series of factors that mutually influence one another.

The focus shifts from an individual to a whole

Wholeness- system cannot be fully understood by looking at the individual parts separately

Interdependence- elements in a system are interrelated

Hierarchy- all systems have levels (subsystems)and are also imbedded in other systems (suprasystems)

Boundaries- systems have a loose boundary around them that keeps the system together

Calibration/Feedback- allows a system to be remain stable and constant.

Equifinality- systems that have the ability to achieve the same goals through different means.

Deductive/Scientific Method- researchers move from the general (the theory) to specific instances (actual data in the research setting)

researchers can make modifications or corrections to the theory being tested.

Inductive/ Grounded Theory Logic- researchers collect data in the research setting and then make generalizations based on that data. Researchers refrain from forming hypotheses about what they might find in advance of collecting data.

Hypothesis

Operationalize

Observation

Data

Code

Pure- focuses on knowledge generation and theory building for the sake of advancing an area of study

Applied- focuses on solving the specific problems with the knowledge generated

Chapter 4

1. Scope

2. Logical Consistency

3. Parsimony

4. Utility

5. Testability

6. Heurism

7. Test of Time

The S-LC PUTs Here Test of Time movies

Communication tradition

Communication context

Approach to knowing

Evaluation criteria

Chapter 5

His students collaborated on "Mind, Self and Society"

His student Herbert Blumer coined the term "Symbolic Interaction"

Focuses on the relationship between symbols and interactions.

Sees individuals as active, reflective participants in their social context. Used in both interpersonal and intrapersonal communications.

The importance of meaning for human behavior

The importance of self-concept

The relationship between the individual and society

Humans act towards others on the basis of meanings those others have for them

Meaning is created in interaction between people

Meaning is modified through an interpretive process

Individual develop self-concepts through interaction with others

Self-concepts provide an important motive for behavior

People and groups are influenced by cultural and social processes

Social structure is worked out through social interaction

the ability to use symbols with common social meanings.

Interaction with others is limited until we learn language

Language depends on symbols that evoke the same meaning

Thought allows role taking

the ability to reflect on ourselves from the perspectives of others.

Looking-glass self

Pygmalion self

we- as individuals can be both subject- the I and object- the me

The "I" is impulsive, creative, spontaneous, and not influenced by social constraints

The "me" is relective, socially aware, analytical and evaluative.

The "I" and "Me" are complementary parts of the self

the web of social relationships that humans create

-Particular Others

-Generalized Others

Strengths- stands the test of time, logical consistency, heuristic (applications in a variety of contexts)

Criticisms- Scope (too vague and broad), Lack of Utility (focuses too much on the individual and fails to explain the emotions and self-esteem), Untestable

Chapter 6

Coordinated Management of Meaning:

The Hierarchy of Organized Meaning

refers to how people establish rules for creating shared meaning in conversation.

The rules that are created are intertwined in conversations where meaning is constantly being negotiated through the management of these rules.

human beings live IN communication

human beings co-create a social reality

the exchange of info between individuals (information transactions) depends on personal AND interpersonal meaning

Content

Speech Act

Episodes

Relationship(s)

Life Scripts

Cultural Patterns

Content builds the Speech Act which creates the Episode of a Relationship that formulates a person's Life Script that becomes a part of a Cultural Pattern.

the smallest building block; the "raw data" made up of words, symbols, noises

As data is collected it's categorized into different content areas.

Communicate the intent of a speaker and are composed of compliments, assertions, questions, etc.

Speech acts are co-constructed; that is it takes two (or more) people to create

Communication "routines" with a beginning, middle, end

Similar to a scene in a play, episodes describe situations or contexts in which people act and react.

Provides boundaries; parameters for attitudes and behaviors taking place

Relationships exist on different levels (bf/gf, spouse, friends, parent/child)

Cluster of episodes from the past and present

the self is shaped and in turn shapes the communication act

Our views of the world we live in and our place in society

People identify with different cultural groups and it shapes the larger view of the world which is also a culture unto itself

Occurs when two people engaged in a communication act attempt to make sense out of the message going back and forth

Because our social realities change and shift, coordination can (and does) occur at different levels.

what we think of feel is right, honorable or just in regards to a topic or action taking place in conversation.

(an influence on the coordination process)

An individual's stories, experiences, images, and symbols that make the would meaningful on a personal level

(influence on the coordination process)

rules help individuals process information and interpret situations

-constitutive rules

-regulative rules

-it may be hard to see an alternative

-they may not have the skills to change the rule system

-they may be comfortable in the established pattern

Lower levels of the hierarchy of organized meaning can affect and reflect the higher levels

2 types of loops:

charmed and strange

Scope: abstract definitions with no concrete parameters

Parsimony: Broad in scope; CMM as a model rather than a theory

Utility: Applicable and practical understanding the creation of meaning, conflict and the self

Heurism: Spans multiple content areas

Chapter 7

the manner, disposition, feeling or position one holds with regard to a person or thing; a tendency or orientation, especially of the mind.

cannot be directly observed

 1. The mind operates as an intermediary between stimulus and response.

2. When people receive information (a stimulus), their minds organize it into a pattern with other previously encountered stimuli. If the new stimulus does not fit the pattern or is inconsistent, then people will feel discomfort. As a result, they will then take steps to reduce the discomfort (which we will cover later on).

Heider’s Balance Theory: looks at cognitive elements of relationships and the attitudes/evaluations that are attached to these relationships.

Three components: A person or perceiver (P), another person (O), and an issue (X).

Balance Theory’s basic premise is that people prefer a balanced relationship between P, O & X (regardless of whether it is positive or negatively evaluated).

Consonant

Dissonant

Irrelevant

Assumption #1: Humans want consistency between thoughts and beliefs

  This is an aspect of human behavior; people want their thoughts and actions to be in balance with each other.

Example: Smoking in spite of the knowledge that it causes cancer.

Assumption #2: Dissonance is created by psychological inconsistencies (as opposed to logical inconsistencies) which arouse cognitive dissonance.

Example: Believing that preserving the earth for future generations is an important and worthy cause yet also believing that it’s okay to throw away plastic and cans rather than recycle because, after all, not much difference can be made at a personal level would be logically inconsistent.

(may not cause cognitive dissonance)

Psychological inconsistencies cause aversive dissonance.

Assumption #4: We are psychologically driven to reduce dissonance.

-how important the issue/event is

-the dissonance ratio

-the strength of reasoning used to justify the discrepancy between dissonant/consonant feelings.

 Many techniques to decrease dissonance are cognitively based

  a. An individual can add or subtract cognitions to change the ratio of consonant to dissonant cognitions.

  b. An individual might try to reduce the importance of the dissonant cognitions.

  c. An individual might distort information or stimuli in an effort to reduce dissonance.

Examples of techniques used to reduce dissonance:

  -Change your attitude

  - Add consonant cognitions

  - Derogate the unchosen alternative (it’s better than…)

  -Spread apart the alternatives (prior evaluation of options was close, in order to make yourself feel “better” you raise the evaluation the chosen alternative and lower the evaluation of the unchosen option (ex. Going to see a movie or staying home-works until you clearly realize how bad the movie is)

  -Alter the importance of the cognitive elements (trivialize the movie choice to make it unimportant)

  -Suppress thoughts (denial)

  -Communicate (Use conversation to help bolster decision)

  -Alter the behavior (Crappy movie? Leave)

Selective Exposure

Selective Attention

Selective Interpretation

Selective Retention

seeking out info that is consonant (consistent) with existing beliefs/attitudes help us avoid and reduce dissonance

like seeks like

Using the least amount of effort/incentive to achieve the greatest result.

The Festinger/Carlsmith Study

(Principle of Minimal Justification)

participants asked to do a boring task for an hour

offered either $1/$20 to convince the next participant it was fun

after it was over, those paid $20 said it was boring and those paid $1 still thought it was fun...

why?

those paid $1 experienced CD and had to convince themselves it was fun in order to convince someone else.

Buyer's Remorse- dissonance we experience after making a large purchase

Confidence in Decisions- after placing a bet, bettors are more confident than before.

Doomsday Cults- leaders use selective interpretation to justify why their predictions didn't come true, to reduce the dissonance of followers

Criticisms: dissonance as the core concept is lacking

self concept interferes w/ dissonance

lack of practical utility

testablity issues; hard to disprove

Strengths: Heuristic value: ton of research

offers insight into the relationship between attitudes, cognitions, affect and behavior

broad scope