Term
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Definition
| Adherence by an individual to group norms so that behavior lies within the range of tolerable behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| In groups, a state in which group goals and individuals goals held by a member are similar in the sense that actions leading to the attainment of group goals lead simultaneously to the attainment of individual goals. |
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Definition
| A social unit that consists of two or more persons and has the following characteristics: shared goal(s), interaction (communication and influence) among members, normative expectations (norms and roles), and identification of members with the unit. |
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Term
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Definition
| A property of a group, specifically the degree to which members of a group desire to remain in that group and resist leaving it. A highly cohesive group will maintain a firm hold over its members' time, energy, loyalty, and commitment. |
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Definition
| A desirable outcome that group members strive collectively to accomplish or bring about. |
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Definition
| In groups, a form of influence that occurs when a group member accepts information from others as valid evidence about reality. Influence of this type is particularly likely to occur in situations of uncertainty, or where there are no external or "objective" standards of reference. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which a group's majority pressures an individual to adopt a specific position on some issue. |
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Definition
| An attempt by an active minority within a group to persuade majority members to accept their viewpoint and adopt a new position. |
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Definition
| In groups, a standard or rule that specifies how members are expected to behave under given circumstances. Expectations concerning which behaviors are acceptable and which are unacceptable for specific persons in specific situations. |
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Term
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Definition
| In groups, a form of influence that occurs when a member conforms to group norms in order to receive the rewards or avoid the punishments that are contingent on adherence to these norms. |
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Definition
| The emergence of distinct roles within a group. The division of labor within a group. |
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Term
| Social-emotional specialist |
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Definition
| In groups, a person who strives to keep emotional relationships pleasant among members; a person who initiates acts that ease the tension and soothe hurt feelings. |
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Definition
| Any property of a person around which evaluations and beliefs about that person come to be organized; properties such as race occupation, age, sex, ethnicity, education, and so on. |
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Definition
| A process through which differences in members' status characteristics lead to different performance expectations and hence affect patterns of interaction in groups. The tendency for a member's status inside a group to reflect his or her status outside that group. |
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Definition
| In groups, a member who pushes the group toward the attainment of its goals; a person who contributes many ideas and suggestions to the group. |
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Definition
| The capacity of one group member to issue orders to others- that is to direct or regulate the behavior of other members by invoking rights that are vested in his or her role. |
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Term
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Definition
| In groups,a procedure intended to generate a large number of high-quality, novel ideas in a brief period. Brainstorming is based on the principles that members should feely express any idea that comes to mind, withhold criticism and defer judgement until later, try to generate as many ideas as possible, and build on ideas suggested by others. |
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Definition
| In group decision making, the tendency for decisions to be more cautious (less risky) than decisions made by individual members prior to discussion. |
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Definition
| A type of unitary group task in which the group's performance depends entirely on that of its weakest or slowest member. |
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Term
| Contingency model of leadership effectiveness |
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Definition
| A middle-range theory of leadership effectiveness that maintains that group performance is a function of the interaction between a leader's style (task-oriented or relationship-oriented) and various situational factors such as the leader's personal relations with members, the degree of task structure and the leader's position power. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of unitary group task in which the group's performance depends entirely on its strongest or fastest member. |
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Term
| Distributive justice principles |
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Definition
| A criteron in terms of which group members can judge the fairness and appropriateness of the distrubution of rewards. Three of the most important are the equality principle, the equity principle, and the relative needs principle. |
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Definition
| An attitude held by a group member indicating the extent to which he or she supports the group's leader. |
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Term
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Definition
| In exchange theory, a state of affairs that prevails in a dyad or group when people receive rewards in proportion to the contributions they make toward the attainment of group goals. |
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Term
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Definition
| An empirical generalization regarding group productivity- namely, that if a group establishes explicit, demanding objectives with respect to the group's performance, and if the group's members are highly committed to those objectives, then the group will perform at a higher level than if it does not do these things |
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Term
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Definition
| In group decision making the tendency for group members to shift their opinions toward a position that is similar to but more extreme than the positions they held prior to group discussion; both the risky shift and the cautious shift are instances of group polarization. |
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Term
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Definition
| The level of a group's output (per unit of time) gauged relative to something else, such as the level of resources used by the group or the group's targeted objectives. |
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Definition
| A mode of thinking within a cohesive group whereby pressures for unanimity overwhelm the members' motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. |
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Term
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Definition
| In groups, the process whereby one member influences and coordinates the behavior of other members in pursuit of group goals. The enactment of several functions neccesary for successful group performance; these functions including planning, organization, and controlling the activities of group members. |
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Term
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Definition
| In brainstorming groups, a phenomenon that inhibits the production of novel ideas. Production blocking occurs when participants in a brainstorming group are unable to express their idea due to bottlenecks caused by turn taking among members. |
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Term
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Definition
| In group decision making, the tendency for decisions made in groups after discussion to be riskier than decisions made by individual members prior to discussion. |
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Term
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Definition
| A phenomenon in which the mere presence of other individuals causes persons to perform better. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency by group members to slack off and reduce their effort on additive tasks, which causes the group's output to fall short of its potential. |
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Term
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Definition
| Leadership in groups based on an exchange between the leader and other group members. The leader performs actions that move the group toward the attainment of its goals; in return, the leader receives support, endorsement, and rewards. |
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Term
| Transformational leadership |
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Definition
| Leadership that strengthens group performance by changing the way members view their group, its opportunities, and its mission. Leadership that conveys an extraordinary sense of mission to group members and arouses new ways of thinking within the group. |
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Term
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Definition
| In situations of conflict, a neutral third party who has the power to decide how a conflict will be resolved. |
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Term
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Definition
| In intergroup relations, a situation or event caused by or attributed to an outside group that produces negative or undesirable outcomes for members of the target group. |
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Term
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Definition
| Overt acts, occurring without apparent justification, that treat members of certain out-groups in an unfair or disadvantageous manner. |
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Term
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Definition
| In intergroup relations, the tendency to regard one's own group as the center of everything and to evaluate other groups in reference to it. The tendency to regard one's in-group as superior to all out-groups. |
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Term
| Illusion of out-group homogeneity |
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Definition
| The tendency among in-group members to overestimate the extent to which out-group members are homogeneous or all alike. |
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Term
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Definition
| A state of affairs in which groups having opposing interests take antagonistic actions toward one another to control some outcome important important to them. |
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Term
| Intergroup contact hypnosis |
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Definition
| An hypothesis holding that in intergroup relations, increased interpersonal contact between groups will reduce stereotypes and prejudice, and consequently reduce antagonism between groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| A third party who helps groups in conflict to identify issues and agree on some resolution to the conflict. Mediators usually serve as advisors rather than as decision-makers. |
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Term
| Realistic group conflict theory |
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Definition
| A theory of intergroup conflict that explains the development and the resolution of conflict in terms of the goals of each group; its central hypothesis is that groups will engage in conflictive behavior when their goals involve opposition of interest. |
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Term
| Social identity theory of intergroup behavior |
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Definition
| A theory of intergroup relations based on the premise that people spontaneously categorize the social world into various groups (specifically in-groups and out-groups) and experience high self-esteem to the extent that the in-groups to which they belong have more status than the out-groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| In intergroup conflict, an objective held in common by all conflicting groups that cannot by achieved by any one group without the supportive efforts of the others. |
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Term
| Ultimate attribution error |
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Definition
| A Perceptial bias occuring in intergroup relations. Negative behaviors by out-group members are attributed to stable, internal factors such as undesirable personal traits or dispositions, but positive behaviors by out-group members are attributed to unstable, external factors such as situational pressures or luck. As a result, in-group observers will blame the out-group for negative outcomes but will not give it credit for positive outcomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sense that one is uninvolved in the social world or lacks control over it. |
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Term
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Definition
| Events that are beyond an individual's control, unpredictable, often life-threatening, often large in magnitude, and that disrupts people's usual actvities |
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Term
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Definition
| A designated location in social system. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sense of having little or no control over events. |
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Term
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Definition
| An interpersonal relationship that is personal, emotionally involving, and of long duration. |
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Term
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Definition
| A set of functions to be performed by a person on behalf of a group on behalf of a group of which he or she is a member. A cluster of rules indicating the set of duties to be performed by a member occupying a given position within a group. The set of expectations governing the behavior of an occupant of a specific position within a social structure. |
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Term
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Definition
| The condition in which the demands placed on a person by his or her roles exceed the amount of time, energy, and other resources available to meet those demands. |
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Term
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Definition
| The awareness that one s engaging in activities that are not rewarding themselves. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sets of interpersonal relationships associated with the social positions a person occupies. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ordered and persisting relationships among the positions in a social system. |
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Term
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Definition
| Stress experienced at work or in the family is carrier over into the other domain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The social ranking of a person's position. |
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Term
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Definition
| Movement of a person from an occupation lower in prestige and income to one higher in prestige and income. |
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Term
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Definition
| Enduring beliefs that certain patterns of behavior or end states are preferable to others. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that deviant behaviors aries when people striving to achieve culturally valued goals find they do not access to the legitimate means of attaining these goals. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that an individual's tendency to engage in deviant behavior is influenced by his or her ties to other persons. There are four components of such ties: attachment, commitment involvement, and belief. |
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Term
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Definition
| The view that the arrest and punishment of some individuals for violation of laws deters other persons from committing the same violations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Behavior that violates the norms that apply in a given situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A group of people whose norms encourage participation in a specific form of deviance and who regard positively those who engage in it. |
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Term
| Differential association theory |
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Definition
| The theory that deviant behavior occurs when people learn definitions favorable to the behavior through their associations with other persons. |
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Term
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Definition
| Agencies that are given responsibility for dealing with violations of rules or laws. |
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Term
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Definition
| The reactions of family, friends, and acquaintances to rule violations by individuals. |
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Term
| Institutionalization of deviance |
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Definition
| The process by which members of a group come to expect and support deviance by another member over time. |
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Term
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Definition
| The view that reactions by others to a rule violation are an essential element in deviance. |
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Term
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Definition
| An environment in which an individual can learn the information and skills required to enact a role. |
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Term
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Definition
| Those ways of striving to achieve goals that are defined as acceptable by social norms. |
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Term
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Definition
| An environment in which an individual has opportunities to enact a role, where usually requires the assistance of those in complementary roles. |
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Term
| Routine activities perspective |
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Definition
| A theory that considers how deviant behavior, such as crime and substance abuse, emerges from the routines of everyday life. |
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Term
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Definition
| Behavior that violate social norms. |
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Term
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Definition
| Deviant behavior employed by a person as a mean of defense or adjustment to the problems created by others' reactions to rule breaking by him or her. |
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Term
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Definition
| When persons have toward another person according to a label (impression) and cause the person to respond in ways that confirm the label. |
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