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| Process by which ppl try to explain the causes of behavior or events |
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| Within a person (smart, studied hard) |
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| Outside a person (bad situation, test hard/easy) |
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| Always happens (across time) |
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| Person's habitual way of explaining events |
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| Pessimistic Explanatory Style |
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-internal, stable, global
-less healthy in 30s |
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Kelley's Covariation Principle
Distinctiveness |
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| Is the person's behavior unique to this situation? |
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Kelley's Covariation Principle
Consistency |
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| Does the person always behave the same in this situation? |
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Kelley's Covariation Principle
Consensus |
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| Does everyone behave this way in this situation? |
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| Single possible cause is seen as less likely if other plausible causes exist |
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| A single cause is seen as very likely if other causes would normally produce the opposite effect |
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| Tendency to make external attributions for one's own failures but to make internal attributions for one's success |
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Fundamental Attribution Error
(Correspondence Bias) |
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Observer- internal attributions for others
Actor- External attributions for one's situation |
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| What is true of them is thought to be true of others |
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Belief that people get what they deserve & deserve what they get
-victim blame |
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| Theoretical perspective that examines how we interpret, analyze, remember & use info about the social world |
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-non-conscious
-unintentional
-involuntary
-effortless |
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Dual Process Models of Social Cognition
Automatic vs. Controlled Processing |
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either/or
simultaneous
-explicit cognition (effortful)
-implicit cognition (automatic) |
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| Process of forming categories of people based on their common attributes |
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| Most representative member of a category |
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| Organized structure of knowledge about a stimulus that is built up from experience & that contains causal relations (me & respect) |
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| Schema that describes how a series of events is likely to occur in a well-known situation |
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| Extent to which schemas, categories or concepts are at the forefront of ppl's minds |
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| Process by which recent experience or exposures to a stimulus make a schema, concept, etc. accessible |
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| Efficient mental shortcuts that reduce complex judgments to simple rules of thumb |
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| Representativeness Heuristic |
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-Specific person & assume their group characteristics
-Tendency to judge the category membership of things based on how closely they match the "typical" or "average" member of that category
-Base rate info ignored (frequency of event in reality) |
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| -Tendency to judge the frequency or probability of an event in terms of how easy it is to think of examples of the event |
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| Anchoring & Adjustment Heuristic |
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| Tendency for ppl to use a # or value as a starting pt. & then adjust insufficiently from this anchor when making quantitative judgments |
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| Tendency to judge the probability of a future event on the ease w/ which it can be imagined |
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| When ppl think that a different outcome would have occurred if different events had taken place |
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| Emotions are more intense if event almost didn't happen |
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| Situations That Make Heuristics Likely |
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-Pressed for time
-Overloaded w/ info
-Issue in question isn't very important
-Have very little knowledge or info to use in making a decision
-Something about the situation calls to mind a given heuristic, making it cognitively available (priming)
-When in pos. mood (no effortful thinking is necessary) |
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| Attempt to prevent certain thoughts from entering consciousness |
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Paradoxical Effect
(Thought Suppression) |
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-Creates an obsession w/ the thought
-Init. expression then init. suppression
-5 mins "stream of consciousness" period
-Thought suppression rebound
-Automatic monitoring process
-Controlled operating process |
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| Tendency, once an event has occurred, to overestimate our ability to have foreseen the outcome |
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| Overestimating the covariation b/w 2 or more variables (makes stereotypes greater) |
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| Insensitivity to Regression Effects |
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| -Extreme events tend to be followed by less extreme ones |
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-Influence of expectations
-Way one acts influences others
-Process by which one's expectations about a person or group leads to the fulfillment of those expectations |
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| Effect of repeated failure in a situation, which is overgeneralized to new situations |
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Way something is said or approached changes the way ppl react
-ppl react differently to gains & losses, so their decisions may depend on how a choice is framed |
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| Pos. or neg. evaluation of an object, person or idea |
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Attitudes we consciously endorse & can easily report
-Easy to change
-Measured through self-report |
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Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable & at times unconscious
-Develops slowly in time through repeated experiences & associations
-Measured through reaction time |
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-Mere exposure & familiarity
-Conditioning
-Physiological feedback (facial)
-Body posture (embodiment) |
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| When do Attitudes Predict Behavior? |
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| The more specific the question, the better it predicts behavior |
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| Priming attitudes (or schemas) affects behavior |
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| Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
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Experiencing the aversive state of dissonance (caused by inconsistencies) leads to effort to restore consistency
-change attitude
-change behavior |
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| Tendency to find & justify reasons for doing something effortful, especially if ends up disappointing or unpleasant |
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| Behaviors are inconsistent w/ attitudes |
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| Ppl look at their own behavior to determine their attitudes |
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| Elaboration Likelihood Model |
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| Theory that persuasive msgs can cause attitude change in 2 ways, each differing in the amt of elaboration (careful thought) it requires |
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| Persuasion occurs when ppl think carefully about a persuasive msg & are influenced by the strength of its arguments |
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| Persuasion that occurs when ppl don't think carefully about a persuasive msg & instead are influenced by cues that are irrelevant to the content or quality of the msg |
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| When To Use Central Route |
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Definition
-Topic is personally relevant
-We know more about the topic
-We feel responsible or accountable for our actions following the persuasive method |
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| When To Use Peripheral Route |
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-We lack motivation
-We lack cognitive resources (distracted, time crunch) |
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-Credibility
-Expertise, authority
-Attractive
-Trustworthy |
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Vividness, emotions, arguments
-too vivid backfires & leads to suppression
-too funny backfires: forget brand
-counter arguments are more persuasive |
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-Mood, involvement, personality, age
-Young & elderly look for peripheral |
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| MOST EFFECTIVE PERSUASION TECHNIQUE |
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| How physically close you are to someone influences attraction |
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| Tendency for contact w/ another person to be encouraged or inhibited by distance |
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| Mere Exposure & Familarity |
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-Increases fluency
-If we've encountered it before & it didn't harm us, it's safe |
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-Similar others validate beliefs
-Smooth interactions
-Likable qualities |
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Attractive ppl have many other positive qualities
-happy, intelligent, open, successful, popular
-mothers play more w/ attractive babies |
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Definition
-Symmetry
-Averageness
-Sex Typical Features |
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-Hormones produce different physical features
-Lots of testosterone weakens immune system, therefore those w/ large jaws must have very strong immune system to overcome large amts. of testosterone |
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| Parental Investment Theory |
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Definition
-The sex w/ less parental investment will compete for the sex that invests more
-The sex that unvests more will be more selective about whom they mate
-True across species |
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| Men & women look for different qualities in their mates b/c they faced different problems during evolution |
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-Identifying fertile women
-Enduring paternal certainty |
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-Identifying men able & willing to invest in her & her offspring
-Identify healthy men |
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| Interpersonal Relationships |
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| Attachments in which bonds of family or friendship or love or respect or hierarchy tie together two or more individuals over an extended period of time |
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| Crushes your spirit & weakens your resistance more effectively than any other form of mistreatment |
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| Costs of Social Rejection |
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-Death warrant
-Dependent on others for food, shelter, defense & affection
-Stress-related cardiovascular arousal (cortisol)
-Aggressive defensiveness
-Undermines ability to think |
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| Our early attachments w/ our parents & other caregivers shape our relationships for the remainder of our lives |
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| Working Model of Relationships |
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| Individual's beliefs about another's availability, warmth, & ability to provide security |
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| Comfortable with intimacy & want to be close to others during times of threat & uncertainty |
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| Insecure in relationships, compulsive self-reliance, prefer distance from others, & during times of threat & uncertainty are dismissive & detached |
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Insecure in relationships, compulsively seek closeness, express continual worries about relationships, & during times of threat & uncertainty make excessive attempts to get closer to others
-high maintenance :(
-divorced parents, death of parent, or abuse as child |
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| Beliefs, feelings & expectations about ourselves that derive from our relationships w/ others in our lives |
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| Ppl are motivated to maximize their own feelings of satisfaction & are willing to pay certain costs to obtain rewards |
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Long-term bonds in which the individuals feel a special responsibility for one another
-sense of sameness & family-like sharing of common identity
-give according to whom has the most pressing need at the time |
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Short-term, trading-based relationships in which individuals feel no responsibility towards one another
-giving & receiving are governed by concerns of equity & reciprocity |
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| rewards, alternatives, investments + commitment + prosocial behavior = trust, satisfaction |
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| Social Surrogacy Hypothesis |
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| Parasocial relationships in favored television programs can provide the experience of belonging |
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| We eat according to other's portions & body type |
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