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| the manner in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use information about the social world |
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o Counterfactual Thinking - tendency to imagine other outcomes in a situation than the ones that actually occurred, what might have been
o Thought Suppression - efforts to prevent certain thoughts from entering consciousness, attempt to suppress a certain thought |
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too many things going on in your mind, or physically, many things going on
• *Monitoring process- automatic, happens all the time, automatic scan of the instance you don’t want, ex: you’re on a diet so your mind would suppress the idea of food
• *Operating process- effortful, requires thought, deflects you from the ideas that come into your mind about food
• *Rebound effect- you think about the thought you’re not supposed to think of even more, makes the thought overly accessible |
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| non conscious, unintentional, involuntary, effortless |
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| mental frameworks, centering around a specific theme, that allow for the organization of large amounts of material in an efficient manner, they can be about anything, way of organizing large amount of info efficiently |
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| What makes schemas accessible? |
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o Chronically accessible
o Related to current goal
o Recent experiences (priming) |
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| tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged, even in spite of contradictory information, once we believe something we don’t like to change it, eyewitnesses are guilty of this sometimes believe some things that never happened |
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| increased availability in memory or consciousness of specific types of information held in memory due to exposure to specific stimuli or events, ex: if your watching a scary movie then the phone rings and you jump |
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| case whereby people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with peoples’ original expectations; making the expectations come true |
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| *Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968) |
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| famous experiment, gave kids an IQ test and then gave teachers feedback on the scores, told the teachers that certain ones were bloomers and had great potential and then looked at the end of the year results. The students that were told were bloomers actually did better even it was entirely random and false of who was a bloomer. This happened because the teachers encouraged the bloomers more and were warmer and were given more input and attention. Verbal and non verbal signals were more for the bloomers and gave bloomers better output and more time to answer questions. So this created a situation where the bloomers did actually do better. |
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| rules of thumb we often use to make decisions or draw inferences quickly, with minimal effort, part of our schemas ex: ivy league schools are better, as detail increases representativeness increases but it detail increases then accuracy then decreases |
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o High arousal
o Cognitive load
o Time pressure
o Those higher in need for closure
o Good moods, because thinking often brings us down |
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| When we don’t use heuristics?? |
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o Accountability
o Those high in need for cognition, they like thinking and enjoy it |
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| a strategy for making judgments based on the extent to which current stimuli or events resemble other stimuli or categories |
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| a strategy for making judgments on the basis of how easily specific kinds of information can be brought to mind, dramatic but rare events are overestimated, the more available things are then the more likely it is |
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| a heuristic that involves the tendency to use a number or value as a starting point, to which we then make adjustments, has bigger effects when its not about numbers ex: bad impression of someone you just meet and then they are your lab partner then you get to know them and realize that they are nice so your impression has gone up from the initial one |
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| allow us to have quick decisions, sometimes wrong but often right |
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| False Consensus (w/ bias) |
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| tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us |
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| a tendency to search for or interpret new information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions and avoid information and interpretations which contradict prior beliefs |
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| greater sensitivity to negative information than to positive information, negative things are stronger to us than positive things |
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| our predisposition to expect things will turn out well overall, having a sense of optimism and gives you a certain sense of resilience, better than thinking realistically |
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| tendency to have more confidence in the accuracy of our judgments than is reasonable |
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| tendency to make optimistic predictions concerning how long a given task will take for completion |
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| what we remember while in a given mood may be determined, in part, by what we learned when previously in that mood, helps with memory retrieval |
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| we are more likely to store or remember positive information when in a positive mood, and negative information when in a negative mood |
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| sex differences in our social behavior are due to society’s expectations, how girls are raised different than boys |
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| Implicit Personality Theory |
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| beliefs about what traits or characteristics tend to go together similar to schemas, example: first borns are….. middle borns are….. and the baby is…… |
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communication between individuals that does not involve the content of spoken language, woman are better at it
o emblems – body movements carrying specific meanings in a given culture, example: like giving a thumbs up sign, and giving an ok sign but it might mean something horrible in another country
o channels:
• facial expressions
• eye contact
• body language
• posture
• touching |
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| 6 universally recognized: Sadness, Fear, Disgust, Surprise, Happiness, Anger |
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| mechanism through which feelings are transferred in a seemingly automatic way from one person to another, if you look at a picture of someone that’s happy then you are happy |
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| process through which we seek to identify the causes of others behavior and so gain knowledge of their stable traits and dispositions, figuring out what makes them tick |
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| to form an attribution we systematically note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs |
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| What casual factors do we look for (covariation model)? |
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• consensus – extent to which other persons react to some stimulus or event in the same manner as the person we are considering
• consistency – extent to which an individual responds to a given stimulus or situation in the same way on different occasion (i.e, across time)
• distinctiveness – extent to which an individual responds in the same manner to different stimuli or events, or situations |
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| tendency to attach less importance to one potential cause of some behavior when the other potential causes are also present, makes you attach less importance to something |
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| tendency to attach greater importance to a potential cause of behavior if the behavior occurs despite the presence of other, inhibitory causes, makes you attach more importance to something |
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| Fundamental Attribution Error |
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| tendency to infer that peoples’ behavior corresponds to their disposition (personality) and ignore situational behaviors, this happens because situational factors are mostly invisible to us, perceptual salience |
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| Two Step Process of Attribution |
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analyzing another person’s behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for their behavior, after which you adjust for the original attribution
• But you’re still plagued by the anchoring heuristic |
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| tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal causes and negative outcomes or events to external causes |
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self defeating patterns of attributions in depression
• Attribute negative outcomes to lasting internal causes
• Attribute positive outcomes to temporary external causes |
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| explanations for behavior that avoid feelings of vulnerability and mortality |
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| form of defensive attribution wherein people assume that bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people |
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| how you manage the impressions that people make of you, focus on 3 things |
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| 1. Appearing Likable (impression management) |
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Definition
• use ingratiation technique, - ingratiation: an attempt to get others to like us
• express liking for others
o sucking up can be dangerous:
• slime effects: happens when showing too much flattery to a superior and treating their equals badly
• create similarity
• make ourselves physically attractive
o attractive people are liked more and appear more honest and receive lower fines, get paid more (5% more) ugly people get 7% less
• portray modesty
o having too much modesty gives off appearance of low self esteem
• smiling: but it can hurt you
o false smiles and true smiles |
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| 2. Appearing Competent (impression management) |
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• use self promoting technique: attempt to get others to see us as competent
• strategies:
• stage performance
• claim competence
• use the trappings of competence (ex: hanging your degrees on your wall, carry your trophies around with you
• make excuses or claim competence |
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Term
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Definition
behavior of withdrawing effort or creating obstacles to one’s future successes
• Ex: procrastination
• decreases the risk of failure and increases the rate of success
• people with low self esteem handicap more
• men use real obstacles more and women make up obstacles more
• does have long term affects: higher alc and drug abuses, more health problems |
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| 3. Appearing Powerful (impression management) |
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Definition
• strategies
• display artifacts of status and power
• conspicuous consumption: an ac of displaying it and spending a lot of money
• associate with people of status and power
o basking in reflected glory
o cutting off reflected failure
• communicate dominance with nonverbal expressions
o those secure in status will:
• relaxed open postures
• visual dominance
• interrupt
• places prominence
• touch others
• encroach on personal space
o threatened status -> puffed up, stiffen backs, tightens brows, thrust out chins |
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| view ourselves as in the public light when we are not |
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| Public self-consciousness |
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| tendency to have chronic awareness of oneself as being in the public eye |
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| fear the people experience while doubting that they will be able to create a desired impression |
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tendency to be chronically concerned with ones public image and to adjust ones actions to fit the needs of the current situation
• Skilled at detecting manipulation
• Skilled at reading emotions
• More likely to be leaders |
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| When do we care about self presentation? |
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• Observers influence goal attainment
• Goals are important
• Observers have impressions different from the ones we want them to have |
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