Strauss

Based on an incest taboo in which women are exchanged between groups

Marriages act as a communication device between lineages

Establishes marriage ties and knits society together

Asymmetrical: (harmonious)like the Purum of Assam, these typically echange women in one direction and bridewealth in the other. Lineages are seen as ego's, wife giver, wife taker, and those who are not part of the group by marriage. Can sometimes end up in marriage in a circle. (martilateral connubium)

Symmetrical: Also called direct or restricted or disharmonious; involves two groups exchanging wives directly. like that of the Karimera of Australia. Tyey are separated into 4 sections (Karimera-Paleyri, and Burung-Baraka) in which they are linked to marry only members of the specific generation and kin group, the resulting child will be of a different generation and thus able to marry the opposing group.

Strauss was concerned with the structural foundations of the human mind, and thus the imposed reality of the world, he argued that these structures could be imposed on all strucutres within society.

His theory proposed the observation of not just the consaguines (the blood relatives) but at the affines (kin groups by marriage and choice) together over time and space and to analyze their interconnectedness.

Structure is in the mind itself; differences and binary oppositions made up the reality of the individual. His was a theoretical take on structure, one that could not be necissarily observed empirically.

Contrasts RB, as Brown believed that structure consisted of the set of relations amongst unit entities in order to maintain the functioning of society. (ORGANIC ANALOGY)

House divided into left and right:

Right: Ningan, the wife takers (son-in-law), married daughters, maksa, feminine

Left: Phumlil, the wife giver, master of the house, superior, unmarried children

Wife givers (apu) are superior to the wife takers (maksa), Although to the next lineage, the apu becomes the maksa.

This can result in a marriage connubium.

Evans-Pritchard

Descent group from one group into many smaller segments:

Minimal lineage: unit above the household, consists of several hhouseholds related through descent. Tertiary

Maximal lineage: Can trace exact lines of descent. Tertiary

Clans: related but too large to trace exact lines of descent Secondary

Phratries: groups of clans into two opposed groups. Primary

Tribe: combination of lineages and clans

A group within which bloodwealth must be paid, tribes usually only claim alliegance when opposed to the Dinka.

Tribes are fuzzy because: 

1. if primary groups war continually, they will often break up into separate tribes and move away.
2. Segments come together to support each other.
3. Pritchard saw this as a system in equilibrium, in that groups can split or come together. 

No centralised gov't, vengeance is expected by slain kinsmen and the deceased, blood wealth is required from those that did the slaying

1. Segments (kin groups) will support their members
2. if the blood feud is between tertiary groups, all members of the tertiary will be involved, same with secondary and primary. and if primary groups war continually they may split from the tribe.

In theory he is a spiritual mediator, who is respected out of custom, but hold no real political power, especially past the secondary level.

his process:

1. the slayer takes asylum with the chief, who performs Bir (ritual bloodletting and sacrifice to get rid of the slain man's blood)
2. The dead man's people (Jiran) are offered cattle as bloodwealth from the slayer's people (Jithunga)
3. The chief threatens to curse the Jiran for not accepting, and they accept the compromise on the basis of custom and respect (the feud still stands until all wealth is paid, or forever)

In a patrilineal society the father is the authority figure in the life of the son, his mother characterizes leniency and love, and so the father is to be treated with respect, the mother with more casuality and less fear...

These characterisations extend to all patrilateral kin and matrilateral kin respectively, so the mother's brother can be treated as a mother with leniency and liberty, while the father's sister is to be treated with respect and fear like a father.

The function of this would be to solidify relations with the father's lineage and symbolise his allegiance.

To be understood as the function of an institution in relation to the needs (necessary for existence) of the organism. It involves the notion that societies like organisms, have basic needs and that they are emperically observed. (Analogy between social and biloogical life)

*Structure can only be observed through it's functioning*

An animal is an agglomeration of cells and fluids that are arranged in relation to each other, not as an agregate but as an integrated whole ie- the oganism has a structure made up of it's inter relations. The function of the organism's living processes is to sustain life. The life processes (digestion, excretion, respiration, etc) act individually inorder to support the whole as an identity, showing a correspondence between the function of the processes and the needs of the organism.

In society: individuals are the smallest unit, connected by a set of relations into an integrated whole, the continuity of the society doesn't die when individuals die, and is maintained by the processes of social life, which consist of the activities and interactions of the individuals and the organised groups in which rthey are united. Social life is the functioning, the function of any recurrent activity (funeral, punishment, etc) is the role it plays in the social life as a whole, thus, cintributing to social cohesion.

Natural Science of Human Society (RB)

Social anthropology as the investigation of social phenomena by methods essentially similar to those used in the biological and physical sciences...

1. Social relation: relations between two or more individuals where ther is an adjustment of their individual interests. They include the dyadic relations of person to person (fa to son), apparent in the relations are the inequalities.
2. Social Personality: He also says that each individual is made up of two parts: the social personality, and the individual (psychological) personality.  In other words, people have a
   social personality related to their 'roles' in society: as a father you are expected
   to act and think in certain 'appropriate' ways that are defined by socialization.
   Not all fathers do this, however.  Individual differences in expectations of
   fathering are related to psychology.  If a person acts in the way his or her social
   role defines him, then this is an example of a social personality.
   
3.  RB uses an organic analogy, i.e.
   compares societies with biological organisms.  He therefore compares the structure
   of society to its morphology, e.g. bones, etc. In essence these are the institutions themselves. 
4. The physiology is the relations
   between the parts.( social morphology in connection with and the dependencies on the social relations between persons and groups)

For Malinowski magic alleviated psychological stress in situations over which people have little technical comfort.

Brown argued that magic rituals were supposed to promote social solidarity and that magic created as many anxieties as they cured. Examples: someone who has sinned, or someone who fears witchcraft, ``ceremonies are the glue of society``

Totemism was an expression of society , nature being incorporated into society as an integral part of the universe characterised by moral order.

Relationship between the mother`s brother and sister`s son in tswana Africa. Indicated familiarity but also tension:

Society was patrilocal, patrilineal, and patripostal, the nephew can tease, eat the food of his uncle.

familiarity was common of same sex

The last science to emerge is, and the one which governs all others is sociology

Positive philosophy: Scientific method (observation and Theory) could be applied to all social sciences

3 stages of knowledge: theological, metaphysical, positive. A universal law of progress exists in which all cultures move through the stages independently of each other

Social order: Positivism should replace Religion

Social Physics: Study of institutions in relation to others at a specific point in time

Social Dynamics: How societies change over time

Coined the phrase Survival of the fittest, stressed empirical observation, introoduced society as a biological organism. Believed that societies passed on successful characteristics, and that the societies that could best adapt were bound to survive.

Laws of Evolution:

1. From simple to complex
2. Towards greater forms of social integration (progress), there is agreater dependence of parts on each other
3. Increasing differentiation = increasing functional integration

Unilinear Evolution: from savagery to barbarism to civilisation. He studied the Seneca, saw a similarity between their organisation and that of classical Rome and Greece. Converted to Evolutionism after meeting Darwin and Tyler.

1. Savagery:

a) Lower: from the infancy of the human race to acquisition of fish subsistence and use of fire

b) Middle: Domestication of animals to use of bow and arrow

c) Upper: Invention of art and pottery 

2. Barbarism:

b) Middle: began with the domestication of animals and ended with the invention of the process of smelting iron to ore

1. Arts of subsistence
2. Government
3. Language
4. Family forms
5. Religion
6. House and Architecture
7. Forms of property

He observed the Seneca, Ojibwa, and Dakota shared a system of classifying kin that named parallel cousins the same term as bro and sis, as well the Tamil and Some African cultures which named all females and males (respectivley) from the same generation the same term.

He called this classificatory kinship terminology, which was different from descriptive kinship terminology in which all members have different terms.

His ethnocentric views led him to believe that biological evolution mirrored these terms and that they were characteristic of civilisation.

• Origin of species in 1859
• as species outstripped their food supply, those that were better adapted to the changing environment, were bound to survive
• No notion of progress as an ultimate end, in fact, it was completely directionless.
• Marked a victory of monogeneism over polygeneism

• Socio-biological evolution/ Social Darwinism
• Following a model of natural selection, human beings had become different from each other biologically as well as culturally; these differences influenced the ability of the groups to utilise culture
• Women and criminals were intellectually and morally inferior, as were aboriginals
• Small scale groups were doomed to destruction as highly civilised cultures spread across the globe
• European prostitutes and African women were equated, genetically hypersexual, due to large genitalia and buttocks... Sarah Bartman

Shift in paradigm from dichrony (historical) to synchrony (studies relationships between institutions during contemporary times)

• Evolutionary theory was too speculative and did not explain why existing phenomena was around today
• Societies are too varied, there were too many exceptions
• Functionalism would explain social institutions relations in context of their time, examining their relationship to find function.

Wrote Division of Labour in Society (thesis)

• Organic solidarity: complex societies had more division of labour and more dependency between unlike groups (like organs)
• Mechanical Solidarity: Pre-agricultural societies were cohesive based on similarity of beliefs and ideas

Collective Representations: all societies subject to moral order which could be studied through:

• Their constraints on the individual
• Their external nature to the individual
• Because they are sociological and not just psychological

Totality of beliefs ans sentiments common to the average members of a society that forms a determinate system with a life of its own. i.e. religion

could be divide into the profane and the sacred

Defined the organically solidified society (Tribal) with all the phenomena present in technologically advanced societies.

• Using the totem to reflect qualities a clan identifies with or wishes to possess
• Reflected rules about exogamy, who's totem could be married or eaten
• Provided a source of social cohesion, worshipping the totem is actually worshipping societies values

• All institutions could be examined in terms of their role in providing and maintaining social solidarity EX> Crime functioned to show societies normative values
• Study of collective representation from the current perspective (synchronic)
• Also, a separate domain of facts requiired a distinctive academic department: Anthro + Sociology

1. Souvla: Red Necklaces which move in a clockwise direction around the Kula trading ring
2. Mwali: White Arm Bands which move in a counter-clockwise direction around the Kula ring
3. Gimwali: Unilateral items such as pigs, axes, yams, etc. Not included as part of Kula, but still traded on the Kula journeys

Why did Malinowski argue that Kula exchange was more than an economic exchange 

• It's use was more ceremonial and had a goal of gaining prestige and maintaining healthy relations with Kula trading partners
• The Exchange involved reciprocity and was more characteristic of "gift exchange"
• Keeping the Kula items for any period longer than 2 years is highly sanctioned and results in the loss of prestige and perhaps invoking poisoning magic being cast onto the offender.

• Malinoski maintained, that in matrilineal societies, the person a boy resents is his mothers brother for his dominance over him.

• Every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the individual on external constraint; or again which is general throughout a given society, while at the same time existing in its own right independent of its own individual manifestations
• In other words, any common sentiment shared by a majority of the social group (collective representation) that could be observed through it's constraints on the individual (collective conscience)

1. Customs associated with different activities Orginisation in relation to customs
2. People`s actual behaviour related to the customs