Term
| What is the definition of social psychology? |
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Definition
| The scientific study of the way in which people’s feelings, behaviors and thoughts are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people. |
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Term
| Describe the differences between a strong and weak situation. Be able to give an example of each |
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Definition
Strong social situations – a situation in which most people behave in the same way (e.g., in a class)
Weak social situations – a situation in which most people behave in different ways (e.g., on a playground) |
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Term
| Why is it important to know about the scientific method? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the five steps of the scientific method? |
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Definition
Hypothesize
Operationalize
Measure
Evaluate
Revise or Replicate |
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Term
| What is a theory? A hypothesis? |
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Definition
Hypotheses are collections of variables organized into a testable statement of prediction.
Hypothesizing has two steps:
Developing a THEORY
A belief or collections of beliefs about some phenomenon.
Derive hypotheses from theories.
They contain at least two concepts and some statement of the relationship between them
They can be operationalized and tested (theories can only be tested by testing hypotheses) |
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Term
| Where do social psychologists get their research ideas? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is a conceptual variable? an operational definition of that variable? |
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Definition
Conceptual-This is the actual concept that you are dealing with.
For example, joy, anger, aggression, how much you really support the candidate, etc.
operational-This is how you “get at” the concept you are attempting to measure.
Taking a real-world measure of relevant concepts
For example, asking you to pick on a scale of 1 to 10 how much you support the candidate’s policies |
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Term
| What is construct validity? At what stage of the research process is assessing construct validity important? |
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Definition
| Do your operationalizations really represent your conceptualizations? |
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Term
| Describe the characteristics of observational research. How is observational research typically conducted? What are different methods of conducting observational research? |
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Definition
This method is used to describe the nature of a phenomenon (Y). This method only involves one variable.
Ethnograpy-understand a group or culture by observing on the inside without interfering
Archival Analysis-look at old papers |
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Term
| Describe the characteristics of correlational research. Be prepared with an example of positive and negative correlations. |
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Definition
two variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them
Questions:
Are X and Y related?
How does Y change when X changes?
Can you predict Y by knowing what X is? |
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Term
| What is a correlation coefficient? Be able to describe the major properties of the correlation coefficient and give examples. |
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Definition
r is a measure of the size and direction of the relationship between two variables
It can be a number from –1 to +1
The sign indicates the direction of the relationship
The absolute value indicates strength |
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Term
| Describe the characteristics of experimental research. What is an IV? a DV? What features of experiments allow you to make cause/effect conclusions? |
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Definition
Manipulates one variable to see the effect on another variable.
Questions:
When X is systematically manipulated, what effect does this have on Y?
Does X cause Y?
Independent Variable (IV) – the variable that is manipulated
The variable that you think is the cause
Dependent Variable (DV) – the variable that is measured
The variable that you think is affected |
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Term
| What are the advantages and disadvantages of each research method (observational, correlational, experimental)? |
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Definition
Correlational studies can be used to examine phenomena which cannot be manipulated.
For example: gender, culture, personality types, cognitive styles, high risk behaviors, health conditions, etc.
Correlation DOES NOT mean causation |
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Term
| What are the differences between random assignment and random sampling? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is internal validity and how is it increased? |
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Definition
Have you adequately controlled alternative explanations (third variables) for your effect?
The whole reason for using experimental procedures is to insure internal validity
Experimenters create a controllable situation that mirrors a situation in the real world |
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Term
| What is external validity and how is it increased? |
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Definition
Would your findings hold up with variations in the situation, different participants, different manipulations, etc.?
External validity has to do with the generalizability of the findings |
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Term
| What is psychological realism? |
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Definition
| the extent to which the psychological processes triggered in an experiment are similar to psychological processes that occur in everyday life |
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Term
| What is a confederate? What is a cover story? |
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Definition
| Cover story-a description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose used to maintain psychological realism |
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Term
| What are the ethical guidelines that govern psychological research? |
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Definition
Full disclosure in debriefing
No undue or irreversible stress
Informed consent |
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Term
| What is the self-concept? What functions does it serve? |
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Definition
The self-concept is a schema about yourself that contains all self-knowledge
The self-concept has three functions:
Managerial – organizes our future behavior
Organizational – helps interpret and recall information
Emotional – helps determine emotional responses |
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Term
| What are independent and interdependent self-construals? Why are they important? |
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Definition
independent-The self is seen as a separate, distinct, autonomous entity
Individual needs are most important
Being true to your self and being consistent are valued
Interdependent-The self is connected and defined in terms of other people
Group needs are most important
Group harmony is more important than personal consistency and being true to the self |
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Term
| What is introspection? Discuss two problems with using introspection as a way to gain knowledge about the self (make sure one references a study). |
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Definition
Thinking about yourself; looking within
Typically used when an answer is clear and readily available
Introspections can be biased
Schwartz & Clore (1983) – Ss called on a rainy day were less happy than those called on a sunny day. BUT, when Ss were aware that the weather might influence them, they corrected for this bias…
Csikszentmihalyi & Figurski (1982) Beeper Study: Only 8% of Thoughts Were About Self |
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Term
| How do causal theories affect our perception of our own attitudes? |
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Definition
| causal theories-theories about the cause of one's own feelings and behaviors we learn them from our culture (two heads are better than one) |
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Term
| Describe the theory that explains how people’s behavior influences their self-concept. |
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Definition
| Self-Perception Theory-the theory that whne our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs |
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Term
| Why is coming up with reasons for our attitudes not always a good idea? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the two factor theory of emotion? What is a study that demonstrates this theory is useful in understanding about ourselves? |
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Definition
the idea that emptional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it
Theory was developed by Schacter and Singer in 1962
The idea that people perceive arousal and then attempt to explain it |
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Term
| What are intrinsic and extrinsic rewards? How do they relate to the overjustification effect? |
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Definition
Intrinsic-the desire to engae in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting not because of external rewards of pressures
extrinsic-the desire to engage in an activity because of ecternal reawards of pressures not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
Overjustificatio-the tendency for people to view their behavior as cause by compelling extrinsic reason makeing them understimate the ectent to which it was cause by intrinsic reasons |
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Term
| What are fixed and growth mindsets? |
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Definition
fixed-the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
growth-the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow |
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Term
| What is the theory of the looking-glass self? Who is particularly susceptible to learn about themselves in this way? How is this idea related to social tuning? |
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Definition
We tend to see ourselves through the eyes of other people and adopt those views
Particularly when we have a motivation to affiliate
Similar to self-fulfilling prophecies
Particularly true for those who lack a firm self concept, such as children
For example, if everyone sees you as messy, you will come to see yourself as messy |
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Term
| What is the original formulation of social comparison theory? When do people make comparisons and with whom do they compare? What does later thinking suggest about social comparison? |
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Definition
We learn about our abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
3 Critical points
People desire accurate knowledge
If available, people will consult an objective standard
People will gain the best knowledge when comparing with someone similar to themselves |
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Term
| What three goals motivate many of the behaviors that are related to the self? |
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Definition
Goal #1: Self-enhancement – enhancing our selves, feeling good about ourselves
Goal #2: Consistency (also self-verification)
Goal #3: Accuracy
NOTE: we pursue goals in this order |
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Term
| What are self-serving cognitions? Be prepared to describe an example of each. |
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Definition
Thinking about things in a way that reflects positively on you
Self-serving bias – blame failures externally and take personal credit for success
False consensus effect – overestimating how much others agree with our opinions
Unrealistically positive self-views – most people thinking they’re “above average” |
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Term
| How is self-verification related to consistency? How does research on self-verification contradict our need to self-enhance? |
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Definition
Seeking information that verifies our impression of ourselves
People who have a negative self-image will seek negative self-information
Even with new information, it’s hard to change our self-schema |
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Term
| What role do self-discrepancies and self-awareness play in determining a person’s self-esteem? If a person becomes aware of a discrepancy, what can s/he do about it? |
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Definition
The discrepancies between how you actually are and how you wish you were or felt that you should be are called self-discrepancies. Everybody has self-discrepancies, but having them doesn’t automatically lead to low self-esteem. But, if you are focused on these discrepancies, it will make you feel bad.
Actual-ideal discrepancies dejection, sadness, depression-like
Actual-ought discrepancies agitation, guilt, anxiety-like
When people are more aware of themselves, their discrepancies will be more salient
One way to create self-awareness is by having a mirror present
People will often try to reduce or escape self-awareness
Ways to reduce self-awareness: watching TV, alcohol or drug use, playing video games, etc. |
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Term
| What is self-objectification? Describe the study that demonstrated this phenomenon. |
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Definition
Self-awareness can cause self-objectification
Self-objectification is a state in which women see themselves through a third party perspective
Fredrickson et al. (1997)
This experiment brought women into the lab and are asked them to try on a sweater or swimsuit
The swimsuit increased body shame and women subsequently restrained their eating
They find that this only happens for female participants, not for males
Perhaps because women are more chronically self-aware |
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Term
| What is self-esteem? How can we increase our self-esteem? |
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Definition
Our attitude toward ourselves; how much we like ourselves
Can be stable of unstable
Ways to maintain high self-esteem
Seek self-enhancing information/self-serving cognitions
Reduce self-awareness
Downward social comparisons
Basking in reflected glory |
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Term
| What is self-presentation? What goals govern self-presentation? |
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Definition
How we attempt to convey information and images about ourselves to others
There are two motives that govern self-presentation:
Instrumental – we want to influence others and gain rewards
Expressive – we construct an image of our selves to claim personal identity |
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Term
| What is self-image bias? What is self-monitoring? |
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Definition
We tend to judge others on the traits on which we look good
Dunning and his colleagues have found:
Participants like college applicants most when those applicants shared their own competencies
Participants tended to describe the leadership styles of famous leaders as similar to their own
Idea that people differ in the degree to which they look to the environment for cues about social behavior
High self-monitors – attend to the situation and the behavior of others and modify behavior accordingly
Low self-monitors – do not try to alter their behavior to suit each situational nuance |
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Term
| What is ego depletion? Describe an experiment that supports the notion that self-control is a resource that can be used up. |
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Definition
A temporary reduction in the self’s capacity to engage in self-control caused by the depletion of our self-control abilities
Self-control is like a muscle. We can wear it out, but we can also build it up.
We can become better at self-control with practice
Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, &Tice (1998) – Study 1
Ps are told that they will complete two experiments
First, a taste test
Second, an anagram task (which was impossible to solve)
Ps are brought into a room with freshly baked cookies
IV: Ps get to eat cookies or to eat radishes sitting in a bowl
DV: how long will participants persist in working on the anagrams? |
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Term
| What is self-handicapping? What are some problems with it? |
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Definition
Creating performance obstacles for ourselves which can then be used to explain away failures
If we fail, we have a ready-made situational excuse (no internal attributions needed).
If we succeed, we must be exceptional
We tend to fail more
Other people tend not to be fooled
Unfortunately, your ought self and your ideal self are not fooled |
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Term
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Definition
Feelings = Affect
Behavior = Behavior
Thoughts = Cognitions |
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Term
| People gain knowledge about themselves in a number of distinct and important ways. |
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Definition
Our thoughts and feelings (introspection and two factor theory)
Our behavior (self-perception)
Others’ reactions to us (looking glass self)
Comparing ourselves with others (social comparison theory) |
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Term
| People have different self-concepts |
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Definition
Three important ones:
Actual self
Ideal self
Ought self |
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