Term
| What are reflected appraisals? |
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Definition
Information about ourselves that we get from other people (also called the looking glass self)
· One of the more fundamental ways of knowing who we are
· Comes from your social environment
· Incorporate info into self-structure
What you get from people and how they respond to you.
The idea that the person bases his or her self-schema on the reactions he or she perceives from others during social interaction |
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Term
| What is social comparison? (complexity) |
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Definition
Learn by comparing self to others
· After developing a sense about the generalized other (proverbial “they”)
· How people would respond if this or that happens
· Internalized notion about society’s rules
This starts very young. (who they are, how they compare) |
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Term
| What is the looking glass self? |
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Definition
Information we get about ourselves from other people. Cooley coined the term.
The self-schema we create based on how we think we appear to others |
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Term
How do these 3 social sources of self-knowledge differ from each other?
(reflected appraisal, Social Comparison, Self-Observation) |
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Definition
(Reflected Appraisal, Social Comparison, Self-Observation)
Reflected appraisal: you take other people's views or opinions of you and apply it to self, this makes up self-structure/schema
Social comparison: we view others and compare them to self
Self-observation: watching what happens to others and we learn from it by incorporating self
- Only have this once you have internalized rules of social surroundings
- Most sophisticated, later in childhood where you look at yourself and figure out who you are |
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Term
| What are some of the techniques we have for negotiating our identities? |
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Definition
Identity management (2 motives)
- Consistency: Authenticity - want world to see us the way we see ourselves
- Enhancement: want to be seen in good/positive light
- 2 motives converge when we think we are wonderful (typical for college students to think we're more wonderful than we actually are)
Strategies for creating a Consistency or Enhancement motive:
- Reflective appraisal
- Manipulating appraisal
*Impression Management through physical means, verbal and behavioral means, Ingratiation, aligning actions, altercasting
*Selective Interaction
*Distorted Interpretation
- Selective Info Processing
- Selective Social Comparison
- Selective Commitment to Identities |
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Term
| What are some of the techniques we have for protecting/restoring damaged identities? |
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Definition
Manipulating appraisal
Selective Information Processing
Selective Social comparison
Selective Commitment to Identities |
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Term
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Definition
· Sheldon Stryker, Peter Burke
· Problem
o Symbolic Interactionism- underplays structure
o Role Theory- underplays role of creativity/agency
· Answer
o The self (the place where you internalize society)
· Identity Salience= the probability of activation of a given identity
o Psychological Centrality= how important a certain identity is to your self-concept
· Identity Commitment= degree to which relationships will suffer from lack of performance or poor performance of a given identity
Social Commitment:
o Intensivity- importance of relationships (loss of a few really critical relationships, or at least damage them)
o Extensivity- quantity of relationships (how many you are now connected to that you wouldn't be if you were to lose an identity) |
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Term
| What is Social Identity Theory? |
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Definition
· Henri Tajfel, John Turner, Michael Hogg
· Grew out of “Minimal Group” paradigm (aka Nominal Groups)
Can create groups with very little boundaries, then create meaning around them, then use them for evaluative purposes
· A focus on membership in social categories as a source of identity
Social categories are NOT minimal groups
· Social categories
Into which one falls
With which one feels belonging
Provides definitions of self that are part of the self-concept
· Membership represented in the mind as identities that prescribe
What one should think
How one should feel
How one should behave
· Identity representations contain an evaluative component that influences self-esteem
· Social Identities separate Us vs. Them (study: "We won, they lost")
· Strong motivation to maintain in-group/out-group comparisons that favor in-group (and self)
· 2 underlying cognitive processes:
Social Categorization
Self-Enhancement
Social Categories- provide definitions of the self that are part of the self-concept into which one falls, with which one feels belonging
Membership represented in the mind as identities that prescribe
o What one should think
o How one should feel
o How one should behave
Different from Stryker's Identity Theory
· We draw boundaries out of nothing and use them for evaluating purposes
· A focus on membership in social categories as a source of identity
· Different than minimal group theory
· Social categories into which one falls |
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Term
| What is a self fulfilling prophecy |
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Definition
Where you are labeled as something, then you take on what goes with that label. For example, if you're labeled a "bad kid", that might make you more likely to act out as a bad kid.
When persons behave toward another person according to a label (impression) and cause the person to respond in ways that confirm the label |
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Term
| According to identity theory, how does social structure influence identity structure? |
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Definition
Identity salience and commitment.
Social structure-->self structure-->behavior.
o Social Structure → Self Structure → Behavior OR
o Commitment → Salience → Behavior
o Structural Commitment → Identity Salience
Intensivity
Extensivity |
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Term
| According to Mead, which are the two stages of social experience leading to the emergence of the self in children? |
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Definition
1. Play stage-- young children imitate the activities of people around them; they do not recognize that each role is intertwined with others, nor do they realize that the same person simultaneously holds several roles
2. Game stage-- children enter organized activities, and learn to imagine the viewpoints of several others at the same time |
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Term
| What are some differences of collectivist versus individualist cultures? |
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Definition
-Collectivist emphasizes values that promote the welfare of the group and its associated identities such as son(family), Catholic (religion), Italian(Ethnicity, and American.
-Individualist emphasizes individual achievement and its associated identities such as president, team cpt, idealist, and outstanding player. |
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Term
| According to the text, what determines whether a particular identity occupies a central or a peripheral position in the salience hierarchy? |
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Definition
1) resources we have invested in constructing the identity (time, effort, money)
2) extrinsic rewards that enacting the identity has brought
3)intrinsic gratifications derived from performing the identity (sense of competence)
4) amount of self- esteem staked on enacting the identity well |
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Term
| What are the three components of a self-schema? |
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Definition
1) self as one is (actual)
2) self as one would like to be (ideal)
3) self as one ought to be (ought)
-there are two types if discrepancies that can occur, actual:ideal (experience sadness) and actual:ought (experience tension) |
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Term
| What are the four types of parental behavior that promote higher self-esteem? |
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Definition
Showing acceptance, affection, interest, and involvement in children's affairs
Firmly and consistently enforcing clear limits on children's affairs
Allowing children latitude w/i these limits and respecting initiative such as setting bedtime and participating in making family plans
Favoring non-coercive forms of discipline (such as denying privileges and discussing reasons, rather than punishing physically) |
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Term
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Definition
To plan, observe, guide, and respond to our own behavior.
--The ability to distinguish between the objective and subjective self (me vs. I) {James and Mead--symbolic interactionalists}
--Reflexivity is critical to role-taking and role-taking allows us to define the generalized other, which enables us to be sophisticated social actors.
--Fundamental criteria for having a self (will have reflexivity if you have learned enough to apply gender norms to yourself) |
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Term
| How do researchers measure the development of reflexivity? |
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Definition
-Blue Dot Test: They put a blue dot on a baby's forehead. Then they place the baby in front of a mirror. If the baby touches the dot on his head, instead of touching the mirror, it has reflexivity. The baby can understand that what is in the mirror IS itself.
(Can also do this study with animals, other primates etc) |
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Term
| Approximately when does this ability develop in humans? |
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Definition
| Most children are able to discriminate their own image from others' at about 18 months |
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Term
| What does research say about the relative prevalence of single-identity and multiple-identity relationships? |
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Definition
| According to Smith-Lovin, "Many of our modern institutional settings segregate us into environments where we occupy a single identity. Relatively few people know us in more than one important type of relationship. Sociologists call these multiple-identity ties "strong ties" because you are tied to one person in several different ways." (p. 166). |
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Term
| What does Smith-Lovin say of situations in which we interact? |
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Definition
| We usually interact in simple single-identity interactions because our "modern institutions are highly segregated into isolated audiences." (p.170). We have few multiplex (multiple identity) interactions. |
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Term
| How does she explain mixed emotions? |
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Definition
| Mixed emotions occur when a situation simultaneously evokes two identities with different meanings and the actions that maintain one identity will disrupt the other. We often feel mixed emotions when there has been social change in society. (173). |
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Term
| What is happening to the rate of multi-identity strong-tie relationships? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the difference between sex and gender? |
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Definition
Gender= Gender consists of the expression of traits, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that support a claim on the descriptive dimensions of masculinity and femininity
Sex= Sex refers to the physiological and reproductive differences humans
Gender is a socially constructed concept.
Sex is biological. |
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Term
| How many sexes are there? |
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Definition
| Fausto-Sterling argues that there are 5 (male, female, hermaphrodites/intersexed/herms, male pseudo hermaphrodites/merms, female pseudo hermaphrodites/ferms) |
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Term
| According to your text, what are the three major influences on the lifecourse? |
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Definition
Careers: A sequence of roles—each with its own set of activities—that a person enacts during his or her lifetime
Identities and self-esteem: As we engage in career roles, we observe our own performances and other people’s reactions to us, using these observations we construct role identities—concepts of the self in specific roles. As we enact major roles, especially familial and occupational roles, we evaluate our performances and thereby gain or lose self-esteem—ones sense of how good and worthy one is
Stress and satisfaction: Performing career activities often produces positive feelings (satisfaction) and negative feelings (stress) which reflect how we experience the quality of our lives |
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Term
| What are the postchildhood life stages? |
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Definition
Achieving Independence.......................Youth, late adolescence............16-23
Balancing family and work commitment....Young adulthood......................18-40
Performing adult roles..........................Adulthood, Maturity, Middle age...35-70
Coping w/ loss...................................Late maturity, Old age................60-90 |
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Term
| What are some of the differences among the postchildhood life stages? |
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Definition
Achieving is when you graduate college and get a job for the first time
Balancing family/work is having children and maintaining work
Performing adult roles: putting their lives to a useful purpose to make a meaningful social contribution; trying to be a good worker, spouse, parent, trying to meet high standards for performance in the adult roles to which they are committed
Coping w/loss: loss of one's occupational role through retirement, loss of significant relationships through death, and eventually loss of health, energy, and independence |
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Term
| What are the six major social transitions individuals experience during the first postchildhood life stage? |
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Definition
Leaving the family home
Finishing school
Entering the workforce
Developing a committed relationship
Getting married
Becoming financially independent |
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Term
| What are three explanations about how much time men and women spend on household work? |
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Definition
1) Women are doing less (technology, outsourcing labor)
2) Women make less money, so they feel like they need to make up for it
3) Women are happier when they do household labor like their parents |
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Term
| What are some of the arguments made by Ridgeway and Smith-Lovin in “The Gender System?” |
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Definition
1. People perceive gender differences to be pervasive in interactions
2. Studies of interaction among peers with equal power and status show few gender differences in behavior
3. Most interactions between men and women occur in the structural context of roles or status relationships that are unequal
--- Beliefs about gender differences combine with structurally unequal relationships to perpetuate status beliefs, leading men and women to recreate the gender system in everyday interaction
--- Only peer interactions that are not driven by cultural gender beliefs or interactions in which women are status- or power-advantaged over men are likely to undermine the gender system |
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Term
| What did Correll find about the relationship between gender, perception of math competence, and educational decision-making? |
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Definition
| Gender beliefs about mathematical ability between girls and boys bias individuals' self-assessments of mathematical competency (girls think they're less capable of math, boys think they're more capable even when their abilities do not reflect these beliefs) which influences later career choices (less women in mathematical and science fields). |
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Term
| How do Correll's findings help account for gender-differentiation in math and science careers? |
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Definition
| Men tend to go to these careers more, even though women could be (or are) better than them at math/science. |
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Term
| What are some key predictors of attraction? |
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Definition
Proximity - physical closeness; the people who are nearest to you in the setting or the people you work or interact most often/closely with
Routine Activities - classes, eating lunch, shopping, bus, same extracurriculars
Familiarity - as time passes, people who take the same classes, live in the same apartment building, or do their laundry in the same place become familiar with each other |
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Term
| What is the mere exposure effect? |
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Definition
Repeated exposure to the same novel stimulus is sufficient to produce a positive attitude toward it.
It produces attraction |
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Term
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Definition
| When one dates one of similar traits, age, religion, race socioeconomic status etc. |
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Term
| According to your text, what are the three components of passionate love? |
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Definition
Cognitive: Preoccupation with loved one, an idealization of the person or the relationship, and a desire to know the other and be known by him or her
Emotional: Physiological arousal, sexual attraction, and desire for union
Behavioral: Serving the other and maintaining physical closeness to him or her |
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Term
| What five beliefs constitute the romantic love ideal? |
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Definition
-true love can strike w/o prior interaction..(love at 1st sight)
-for each of us, there is only one other person who will inspire true love.
-true love can overcome any obstacle(Love conquers all)
-Our beloved is (nearly) perfect.
-We should follow our feeling--that is, we should base our choice of partners on love rather than other, more a rational considerations. |
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Term
| What is the social exchange model of ALT interpersonal relationships? |
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Definition
| Anticipated Rewards minus anticipated costs = keep or ditch the relationship. |
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Term
| How do the principles of CL and CL ALT influence our decision-making about social relationships? |
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Definition
| CL alt gives us an option if our current relationship is going to well, or if the outcome produces less benefits and more cost. |
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Term
| According to social exchange theory, what are the 4 stages of a romantic relationship? |
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Definition
-Sampling and estimation- spend early stages gathering data, doing things you don't normally do, learn about what would be rewarding/costly about being with this person.
More to do with quantity of info than quality, largely about attraction
Put info toward CL’s and see how it will be. We are concerned w/ reciprocity and symmetry at this early stage.
-Bargaining: Move from reciprocity and symmetry, to equity.
Work out details of how relationship is going to work, establish roles, who is in charge of psychological/social labor.
Explore less, develop norms (Division of labor, system for trading costs and benefits). Under exchange theory of CL.
-Commitment- we are trading off when things settle and look real. Settling in, pull back on exploratory behavior (inside and outside relationship) The dropping off of CLalt is taken place to not see others.
Formal: engagement, rings, agreements to not see other people
Informal: without formal expression or involving explicit promised or symbols but effectively both people stop paying attention to alternatives
(psychological phase)
-Institutionalization: Formally through marriage, informally through being seen always as a "pair" and sharing lives, social networks, property, also put up barriers that make it costly to exit their relationship. |
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Term
| What predicts relationship stability (according to the exchange model)? |
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Definition
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Term
| According to Heider’s balance theory, what is intransivity? How do we resolve it? |
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Definition
It is the state of imbalance in the triangular relationship between a person, an other, and 'x'-- an object, person, belief, attitude, etc.
When the triangle relationship is (-, -, +) or (+, +, -). Change the attitudes to reverse the sign, make the + or - a null, or differentiating the attributes of the other person or object |
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Term
| According to balance theory, what makes relationships stable? |
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Definition
| If there is transivity (+, +,+) or (+,-,-) |
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Term
| What specific predictions does the exchange model make about relationship dissolution (i.e. when & what form -- exit, voice, loyalty, & neglect)? |
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Definition
Exit-- active leave
Voice-- active stay
Loyalty-- passive stay (low CL, low CL alt)
Neglect-- passive leave (CL p > CL o) |
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Term
| What are three barriers to exiting a romantic relationship? |
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Definition
Material- actual stuff (money, house, car, etc)
Symbolic- reactions of others
Affectual- affect breakup may have on other relationships (in-laws, mutual friends, etc) |
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Term
| What is a fatal attraction? |
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Definition
| when a quality that an individual comes to dislike in a intimate partner relates closely to one that was attractive and initially appealing. The disliked quality is usually the exaggerated version of the originally attractive characteristic |
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Term
| What predicts a fatal attraction? |
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Definition
when someone possesses a trait dissimilar from an individuals own characteristics, the person has a quality that varies from the average (unique/unusual), when the quality is exhibited in an extreme manner.
#1 predictor is when the basis for attraction is differences- opposites attract and then repel |
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Term
| What is Simmel’s Dyadic Group Process? |
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Definition
| Members of groups continually encounter opposing tensions, and disenchantment occurs when individuals are drawn to partner qualities that represent two opposing forces (e.g., openness), but then they discover that their relationship is lacking in the other dimension (closeness) |
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Term
| What three hypotheses about activities and popularity were examined by Lizon and Dufur? What did they find? |
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Definition
1) Examine if students involved in extracurricular activities were more likely to rate themselves as popular-----> yes, but it depended on the activity and the Socioeconomic Status of the child (high SES think they are more popular)
2) Analyze whether this relationship varies based on the type of extracurricular activity in which the student is involved----> yes, varsity sports, IM sports, cheerleading, dance, drama, honor society, newspaper, yearbook, and student government were associated with popularity, while computer club, science club, and band were associated with negative popularity
3) Whether or not there is a gender difference---> yes, boys view themselves as more popular than girls do |
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Term
| What is the difference between power and status? |
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Definition
Status comes from culture--> ability to influence b/c of respect, value, prestige you are labled to.
Power-comes from structure-->ability to influence others through resources in your position |
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Term
| What are some of a network's structural dimensions? |
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Definition
| size, density, centralization, reachability, symmetry, clustering |
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Term
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Definition
| # of ppl (positions) in network. # of nodes. |
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Term
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Definition
| # of actual links in network as a proportion of total of possible links. # of ties in network/# ties could exist. |
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Term
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Definition
| degree of hierarchy and restriction on communication in network |
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Term
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Definition
| average # of links b/w any two indiv.in network |
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Term
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Definition
| whether links represent one way or two way flows |
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Term
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Definition
| Number of dense regions or grouping in network |
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Term
| What are some ways we have of describing the links themselves? |
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Definition
| Intensity, reciprocity, clarity, multiplexity, bridge |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| degree to which relation is commonly perceived by all parties to the relation |
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Term
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Definition
| degree of clearly defined expectations |
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Term
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Definition
| degree to which individuals are linked by multiple relations |
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Term
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Definition
tie that connects separate structures
Someone who pulls together clusters that would otherwise be under-conneceted |
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Term
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Definition
| An individual with the highest number of nominations |
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Term
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Definition
A star who also links the network to external networks
--(liaison on steroids; sits on a bridge between dense networks) |
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Term
| What are between reachability and closeness centrality? |
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Definition
Reachability occurs at the structural level
Closeness centrality occurs at the node level, and correlates with power |
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Term
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Definition
| higher value, more information |
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Term
| What is the "weak tie" argument? |
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Definition
| Weak ties "open" your group because you don't know the same people as often that your weak ties know. This gives you a lot of variety of people in your extended social network. |
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Term
| Why do your friends have more friends than you do? |
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Definition
| Popular people are friends with more people. The consequences of that is that they are over-represented in peoples groups. They don't contribute to the average friendship size. |
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Term
| What did Haynie find about the relationship between social networks and deviance among adolescents? |
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Definition
| Having delinquent friends makes you more delinquent. Being in a dense network makes you less delinquent. If you have delinquent friends in a dense network, you will be even more delinquent, wiping out the original delinquency effect. Thus, your peers deviance only matters in dense networks |
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Term
| How has the concept of self & individuality changed over time in Western culture? Middle Ages |
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Definition
would know almost everything needed to know if knew: where born, who parents were, whether male/female
o Cultural phenomenon (seen in literature and religion of time)
o Strong medieval faith in Christianity, consequence = variation was not only uninteresting, but problematic and deliberately ignored
o Faith was also a collective, rather than an individual process
· Salvation was determined by baptism, not belief
o Literature: Particulars of life experience were largely ignored
· Biographies almost entirely written about lords and saints (stories were written to reflect their roles)
· No autobiographies
o Not a self-focused culture |
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Term
| How has the concept of self & individuality changed over time in Western culture? Reformation/Renaissance |
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Definition
o Breakdown of the feudal system (destiny no longer determined at birth, regular people could now own things)
o Six major developments:
- Hidden self: layers of hidden info and motives, Shakespeare wrote about it, then Freud later addressed it, "conscious" was invented as a word
- Individuality: uniqueness became more valued
- Privacy: French invented the corridor that brought about ideas of diff/smaller rooms for specific purposes, sex became a more private affair; changes in practices and values in space, privacy, and intimacy
- Death: focus and preoccupation of death, began rituals around death, invented wills and testimonies, non-material destinies - preoccupied with idea of having effect on world beyond death
- Marriage: change from arranged marriages by communities and parents to individuals selecting their partners
- Childhood: childhood created with specific music, literature, clothing, schooling, etc. just for kids
- Material possessions were a good clue for where soul was going, had to make sure you were rich
- Religion was a choice and could vary at the individual level
- More individual responsibility for not just self, but family, creating a childhood period that nurtured children and prepared them to have materially and spiritually rich lives
- Parents suddenly became responsible for own souls and souls of children in modern period |
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Term
| How has the concept of self & individuality changed over time in Western culture? Victorian Period |
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Definition
| amplification of all Renaissance trends, more modesty with sex, definition of families continues to shrink (to focus more on nuclear family structure), treasuring individuality and variability |
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Term
| How does the concept of self and individuality change over time within individual lifespans? |
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Definition
Body image is the aspect of the self we recognize earliest and remains important throughout life
The self also extends to include our material posessions, such as our clothing, house, car, records, and so on
In describing themselves, people frequently mention the styles of interpersonal behavior (introverted, cool), emotional or psychological styles (optimistic, moody), and individual preferences in which they express their role identities
As these things change throughout life, so does the concept of the self? |
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Term
| How does the concept of self and individuality vary cross-culturally? |
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Definition
Collectivist vs Individualistic. Japan has dozens of "I" (Sessha).
Individualist cultures (i.e. United States/Western) emphasize individual achievement and the self-schemas of persons in individualist cultures include more individual identities, such as president, team captain, idealist, and outstanding player
Collectivist cultures (i.e. Japan/Eastern) have more group-linked identities and emphasize values that promote the welfare of the group and its associated identities include son (family), Catholic (religion), Italian (ethnicity), and American |
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Term
| What are some of the ways that our self-concept influences our thoughts and behaviors? |
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Definition
It influences how we interpret feedback influences of others (see negotiating identities--> we focus on information that confirms our most salient identities, so we perceive more confirmation than actually exists),
how fast and with what degree of certainty we process information (people are quicker and more certain when judging and interpreting information related to their important identities or qualities),
and the storage in and retrieval from memory of information(memory for events is better the more the events relate to the self) |
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Term
| What does Smith-Lovin say about the complexity of our selves? |
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Definition
| Selves are complex, but fluid. Complex selves are available mostly in introspection, |
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Term
| According to your text, what are some of the differences in the socialization of identities over the life course? |
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Definition
Because men and women face different adult role expectations, they tend to build their identities on different bases
Women give greater importance to the parental identity
Both men and women give equal importance on both career and marital identities
Most men do not perceive their career on as dependent on future family roles
Many women consider their anticipated roles as wives and mothers in constructing their identities
Young women's identity commitments may be more tentative and ambiguous than men's because the exact nature of a woman's future roles depends in part on the decisions she makes about familial roles |
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Term
| What are some of the relationships between chronological aging, biological aging, and social influences on aging? |
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Definition
Biological aging is aging of the body, physical. Changes in body sizes and structure
Chronological aging is the number of years a person has lived, used especially in psychometrics as a standard against which certain variables, such as behavior and intelligence, are measured |
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Term
| What is the relationship between centrality and centralization? |
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Definition
Centralization – degree of hierarchy and restriction on communication in network (structural feature)
Centrality - degree of importance, hierarchy, in network (node feature) |
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Term
| What are between reachability and closeness centrality? |
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Definition
Reachability occurs at the structural level
Closeness centrality occurs at the node (individual) level, and correlates with power |
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Term
| What kinds of networks lead to the greatest solidarity? |
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Definition
Dense networks--- produce more homogeneity in attitudes and behaviors, less tolerance for deviance
& networks with high reachability---- sustain communication/information integrity |
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Term
How do measures dependence-based power, closeness-based power, betweenness-based power, and degree-based power capture
different aspects of influence in different social situations? |
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Definition
Betweeness-based power: Get from being on a bridge. # of pairs in a network who have to travel through you to get to others.
Degree-Based Power: Simply how many people you know. Captures power by sheer number of first-hand connections. |
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Term
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Definition
| Allows for a variety of different calculations; When alternatives outweigh your current CLs, you are more likely to leave the relationship |
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