Term
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Definition
Caused on subjects with knowledge of being observed.
Ex. Factory workers |
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Term
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Definition
Assumptions that are compelling yet irrational.
Ex. Thinking "Please don't call on me." Then the teacher calls on you. |
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Term
| Social cognition and affect |
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Definition
| Moods and feelings influence thinking. |
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Term
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Definition
Perceive situations and people more positively.
More likely to believe a statement we read. |
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Definition
| Ex. people who are put in a bad mood before watching a video of themselves, will point out more negative behaviors of themselves. |
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Definition
How we form impressions, make inferences about, and explain what others believe and what others do.
How accurate are we? |
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Term
| Implicit Personality Theories |
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Definition
| We develop belief systems about "types" of individuals and the personality traits and behaviors they share. |
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Term
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Definition
Stable personal qualities attributed to individuals.
Lasting and consistent across situations. |
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Definition
Shaped by personal experience but also cultural beliefs.
Passed from generation to generation. |
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Definition
Tendency to view others in a way that is internally consistent.
Explaining away contradictions instead of giving up or changing our implicit theory (schema).
Ex. This is a shy person BUT they've had a lot to drink so he is talking more. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which people use information to make inferences about the causes of behavior or events. |
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Term
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Definition
Locate the cause of an event to factors internal to the person
Personality traits, moods, attitudes, abilities, effort.
Ex. She's just a rude person
Ex. Shes just not feeling well today. |
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Term
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Definition
Locates the cause of an event to factors external to the person.
Ex. I am the kind of person who irritates people and that's why she insulted me.
Ex. There were so many other customers she just snapped. |
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Definition
Assumes a cause is permanent and unvarying.
Ex. She's just a rude person (she would act the same way next week). |
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Term
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Definition
Assumes a cause is temporary and fluctuating
Ex. She's just not feeling well today. (could change later)
Ex. There were so many other customers she just snapped. |
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Term
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Definition
| Assumes the cause was within the person's control |
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Term
| Uncontrollable Attribution |
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Definition
| assumes the cause was outside the person's control. |
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Term
Commonsense Attributions
(Harold Kelley) |
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Definition
Consistency: To what extent does the person react to the same situation in the same way on other occasions?
Ex. Do we know her? Have we seen her do this before?
Distinctiveness: To what extent is the person's behavior specific to this particular situation?
Consensus: Would another person act the same way? |
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Term
| Discounting (Influences on Inference of Traits) |
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Definition
| When there are several possible explanations for an event, people are much less likely to attribute the effect to any particular cause. |
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Term
| Social desirability (Influence on Inference of Traits) |
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Definition
| People are more likely to make dispositional attributions about behavior low in social desirability. |
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Term
| Choice (Influence on Inference of Traits) |
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Definition
| Actions freely chosen are considered to be more indicative of a person's true personal characteristics than those that are coerced. |
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Term
| Why are attributions important? |
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Definition
| Attributions will determine situational behavior and future interactions. |
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Term
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Definition
Scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Understand and explain how the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the presence of others. |
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Definition
A way of guarding against drawing incorrect conclusions about the way things work.
Evidence that challenges our intuitive or common-sense beliefs.
Be skeptical. |
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Term
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Definition
| Theory suggests predictions for research that suggests changes in theory. |
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Term
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Definition
Based on multiple sources of information.
Parsimonious (as simple as possible)
Stimulating of new thought and new research. |
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Term
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Definition
| Entire group of interest to researchers, to which they wish to generalize their findings |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of a population that is studied in order to reach conclusions about the entire population. |
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Term
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Definition
Surveys
Experiments
Correlational Methods |
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Term
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Definition
| Uses a random selection of subjects as a representative sample that mirrors the population of interest. |
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Term
| Self-report measures (surveys) |
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Definition
| Asking people to express opinions, describe experience or behavior, and divulge knowledge. |
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Term
| Source of error (surveys) |
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Definition
Sample versus population: non-random subject pools or small sample size.
Construction of survey: order of questions, response options, wording (framing) of questions.
Participant characteristics: accuracy in self-assessment and honesty of reporting (social desirability effects). |
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Term
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Definition
| Systematically vary an aspect of the situation, control all others, and observe (measure) the effects on the variations. |
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Term
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Definition
Random assignment of participants (experimental and control groups) to conditions (independent variable).
Single blind (subjects) and double blind (experimenters and subjects) as to not bias results by influencing behavior (expectancy effects).
Quantitative information collected about changes in the DV following exposure to IV. |
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Term
| Advantages (experimental) |
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Definition
| Can exercise high degree of control which allows ability to rule out third variable and allows regulation of temporal sequence of events to infer causality. |
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Term
| Limitations (experimental) |
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Definition
External validity limited from artificial situations and short duration.
Narrow focus.
Some variables can't be manipulated (ethics of human subject experiments).
Can't control all variables (confounds)
Hawthorne effects (expectancy effects). |
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Term
| Experimental Field Research |
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Definition
| Involves manipulated IV with unknowning participants. |
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Term
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Definition
| Determine the extent to which two or more variables are related to each other in a given population by comparing pre-existing groups on one or more selected characteristics not randomly assigned. |
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Term
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Definition
| When high (or low) values of one variable are associated with high (0r low) values of another variable (same direction). |
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Term
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Definition
| When low (or high) values of one variable are associated with high (or low) values of another variable (opposite direction). |
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Term
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Definition
Often quick and efficient.
Often only method available for practical reasons (can't manipulate some characteristics) and for ethical reasons (can't manipulate harmful effects).
Provides a quantitative index of the relationship between variables. |
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Term
| Limitations (correlation) |
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Definition
| Can't infer causation because of directionality and third variable problems. |
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Term
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Definition
Ex. Effects of fear on affiliative behavior (experimental). Relationship between birth order and affiliative behavior (correlational).
-->Extent to which variation in affiliative behavior in different fear conditions is influenced by a person's birth order. |
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Term
| Main effects (multifactor) |
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Definition
Effects of each variable on the dependent measure.
Ex. Being first-born child associated with greater affiliation? or Fear increases affiliation?
Ex. Effects of class size on student anxiety. Relationship between sociability and student anxiety in class. |
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Term
| Interaction effects (multifactor) |
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Definition
Qualify the effect of one variable on the dependent measure by taking the other variable into account.
Situations may impact on kind of person but not another.
Ex. First-borns showed increased affiliation with increased fear, whereas others do not?
Ex. Effect of sociability on how student anxiety varies with class size. |
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Term
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Definition
| Descriptive rather than explanation that explores, describes, and interprets participants' subjective experiences. |
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Term
| Bracketing preconceptions |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Validity (Qualitative research) |
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Definition
Explicitness about study context involves existing literature and study milieu and participant expectations.
Rigor.
Transparency from reanalysis and replication of the data.
Intersubjectivity replaces claims to objectivity (consensus). |
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Term
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Definition
A psychological state in which you take yourself as an object of awareness.
Not born with it.
Research indicates that it develops at 18 months.
Coincides with rapid development of spindle neurons found within anterior cingulate cortex in frontal lobe. |
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Term
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Definition
Being aware of private aspects of the self such as personal attitudes, beliefs, and mood induced by solitude, self-focus, and self-reflection.
The higher it is, the more we will tend to act in line with out personal beliefs rather than conform to social pressures.
Ex. Degree to which you: are interested in understanding what makes you tick, follow your own personal standards in daily decisions, or "stew in your own juices" when someone irritates you. |
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Term
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Definition
State of being aware of public self-aspects such as physical appearance and the way we talk and behave induced by being watched by others, having our picture taken or looking in the mirrior.
Increases tendency toward greater adherence to social standards of behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| How likely we are to be self-aware of ourselves privately or publicly. |
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Term
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Definition
A psychological state in which you take yourself as an object of awareness.
We are not born with it
Research indicates that it develops at 18 months of age.
Coincides with rapid development of spindle neurons found within the anterior cingulate cortex, which is found within the frontal lob. |
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Term
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Definition
Being aware of private aspects of the self
Personal attitudes
Beliefs
Current mood
Induced by solitude, self-focus, self-reflection.
Increases tendency to act in line with our personal beliefs than conform to social pressures. |
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Term
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Definition
State of being aware of public self-aspects.
Physical appearance
They way we talk and behave in public.
Can be induced by being watched by others, having your picture taken, looking in the mirror.
Increase tendency toward greater adherence to social standards of behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| How likely we are to be self-aware. |
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Term
| Private Self-Consciousness |
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Definition
| Tendency to be aware of the private aspects of the self. |
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Term
| Public Self-consciousness |
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Definition
| Tendency to be aware of publicly displayed self-aspects. |
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Term
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Definition
| Search for order in random events |
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Term
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Definition
| Associating Random events |
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Term
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Definition
Belief that chance events are subject to our influence
Ex. Gambling |
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Term
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Definition
Mentally simulating and reconfiguring past events by imagining alternative versions of outcomes.
Most often follows negative/unexpected events.
Focus on how the event may have been prevented.
Attempts to make use feel better than don't always work. |
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Term
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Definition
| We incorporate misinformation we receive about events we've experienced. |
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Term
| Reconstructing past attitudes |
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Definition
We change our attitudes but recall always having had our current ones.
Ex. Rosy retrospection of positive experiences. |
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Term
| Reconstructing past behavior |
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Definition
Recalling more favorable behavior
Hindsight bias. |
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Term
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Definition
False but convincing memory.
We construct memories by extracting the gist to make things easier to remember and coming information we have with current feelings and expectations.
Ex. "Sweet" words |
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Term
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Definition
Timesaving mental shortcuts that reduce complex judgments to simple rules.
Allow us to "stretch" our cognitive resources.
Require little though.
Can result in inaccurate judgments. |
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Term
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Definition
Tendency to ignore or underuse "the frequency with which some event or pattern occurs in the general population" information and overuse personal discriptors of the individual in making a judgment.
Ex. Is the person more likely to be a professional runner or an engineer? |
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Term
| Representativeness Heuristic |
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Definition
| Assumption that the more similar an individual is to typical members of a group, the more likely that person is to belong to that group. |
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Term
| Prototype (Rep. Heuristic) |
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Definition
| A mental model that stands for, or symbolizes, the category. |
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Term
| Social Categorization (Rep. Heuristic) |
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Definition
Formation of categories about people based upon their common attributes.
Tends to rely first on physical features. |
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Term
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Definition
We are quick to infer general truths from vivid instance.
Anecdotes are more compelling that evidence.
Ex. How risky is it to fly in an airplane? It would take more than 3 jumbo jets crashing every day to equal the number of deaths from tobacco use. |
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Term
| Conditions for heuristic use |
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Definition
No time for systematic analysis.
Overloaded with information.
Issues in question not very important.
Little other knowledge to use in decision making.
Priming (something calls the heuristic to mind).
Positive mood, no need for effortful thinking. |
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Term
| Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow) |
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Definition
1. Self-transcendence
2. Self-actualization
3. Esteem
4. Belongingness and Love
5. Safety and security
6. Physiological |
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Term
| Self-Serving attributions |
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Definition
| Most people attribute success to their ability and effort and failure to luck or circumstance. |
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Term
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Definition
Tendency to overestimate one's chances of good fortune and to underestimate ones's risk for misfortune.
Operates for ourselves; we are realistic for others. |
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Term
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Definition
| Overestimate others' agreement with out views and behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Seeing our talents and moral behavior as (positively) unusual. |
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Term
| Better than Average effect |
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Definition
Regard selves more positively than peers.
Ethics, Intelligence, Virtue, Tolerance, Health, Insight, Driving, Marriage, Parenting, Bias. |
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Term
| Adaptive Self-serving bias |
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Definition
Protective against depression
Buffers stress (resiliency)
Buffers anxiety (conditions of worth). |
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Term
| Maladaptive Self-serving bias |
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Definition
Creates relationship conflict.
Leaves us vulnerable to inadequate self-protection. |
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Term
| Correlates of Low Self-Esteem |
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Definition
More anxious, depressed, hostile, lonely, pessimistic.
More needful likely to have financial and academic problems.
Less likely to have successful careers.
Less likely to be physically healthy.
Less willing take risks to benefit themselves.
Regulate emotions in a way that maintains low self-regard. |
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Term
| High self-esteem protection |
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Definition
Less willingness to heed advice.
Blaming others for failures.
Self-sabotage (when success seems uncertain).
Associated with bullies, gangs, racists, mass-murderers. |
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Term
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Definition
Grandiose, demand special treatment, crave admiration, entitled, lack empathy, exploitative, envious, arrogant.
Correlates with fame-seeking, cheating, materialism, and fewer committed relationships.
High explicit self-esteem hides low implicit self-esteem. |
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Term
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Definition
| Knowledge that is accessible on demand. |
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Term
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Definition
Knowledge that is inaccessible to conscious awareness.
Procedural knowledge.
Aspects of self-schemas. |
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Term
| Unstable high self-esteem (Michael Kernis) |
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Definition
Uncontrolled anger when self-worth is challenged.
Reactivity to daily hassles.
Tense and pressured when pursuing goals.
Lower sense of well-being. |
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Term
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Definition
| Studied negative effects of high self-esteem and narcissism. |
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Term
| Strategic self-presentation |
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Definition
The process of constructing and presenting the self in order to shape other people's impressions and achieve ulterior goals.
Used to regulate self-esteem and to gain power and material advantage. |
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Term
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Definition
Flattering others so they view you positively.
Most common strategy.
Increases recipients self-esteem.
Highly effective: Business managers receive higher raises, waitresses receive higher tips.
Risk: Observers may view as "brown-nosing". |
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Term
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Definition
Under-representing your positive traits, contributions, or accomplishments.
Very effective in increasing likeability.
Preserves high levels of perceived competence and honesty.
Women employ it more frequently and with greater success than men.
Risk: ineffective when others are not aware of the person's attributes/accomplishments. |
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Term
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Definition
Conveying positive information through you behavior or by telling others about your positive assets and accomplishments.
Used to obtain respect for intellegence and competence
Employed commonly in work-related interactions.
Employed more frequently and with greater success by men than women.
Risk: Can decrease likability if viewed as bragging. |
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Term
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Definition
Appearing absorbed by devotion to a cause and willing to suffer or others' welfare.
Elicits perceptions of integrity, moral worthiness, while arousing guilt and emulation in others.
Can foster strong loyalty and group cohesion in followers.
Risk: Appearance of hypocrisy if moral high ground is lost.
Others may feel inadequate. |
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Term
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Definition
Arouse fear and gain power by convincing others one is powerful and/or dangerous.
Bullies, athletes in aggressive sports.
Parent's frown and lowered tone in securing compliance from a child.
Risk: Likability and counter-aggression. |
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Term
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Definition
Advertise weakness or dependence on others to solicit help or sympathy out of a sense of social obligation.
Homeless person asking strangers for change.
Risk: judgement as poorly functioning.
Loss of self-esteem. |
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Term
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Definition
Individual creates obstacles to his or her own performance.
Most often used when one is evaluated on skills or attributes central to one's self-concept rather than on unimportant characteristics.
Low self-esteem: protect self-esteem in case of failure.
High self-esteem: enhance self-esteem in case of success. |
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Term
| Self-reported handicapping |
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Definition
Complaining about illness or stress-induced handicap prior to engaging in a task.
Provides an excuse for failure without hampering performance.
Risk: viewed as whiner. |
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Term
| Behavioral self-handicapping |
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Definition
Not adequately preparing for a task or using drugs or alcohol to inhibit performance.
More competitive and driven by public standards in performance situations.
Risk: perceived as lazy, unmotivated. |
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Term
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Definition
Constructing self-presentations that best fit a given social situation.
Using cues from others' self-presentations to shape one's own self-presentation. |
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Term
| High self-monitoring persons |
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Definition
Extroverted, skilled impression managers.
"Social chameleons"
Able to communicate and discern the meaning of emotions and nonverbal behavior.
Tend to have less intimate and committed social relationships.
Tend to judge others on more superficial characteristics than on values or attitudes. |
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Term
| Low self-monitoring persons |
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Definition
Less socially skillful.
Present selves consistently across situations.
Behavior guided by inner attitudes and beliefs.
Tend t judge others on values or attitudes rather than superficial characteristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| How we think about and try to understand the social world (and our place in it). |
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Term
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Definition
| Organized structure of knowledge of the social world built up from past experience, individual and social, and shaped by our culture. |
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Term
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Definition
Theory about how the social world operates.
Contain causal relations.
Act as cognitive filter.
Direct attention to relevant information.
Selectively and automatically guide the processing of new information based on implicit rules.
Increase ability to process information and make decisions efficiently. |
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Term
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Definition
Beliefs often persist despite discrediting off the evidence that inspired them.
Examining and explaining why a belief is or might be true closes us off to information that challenges or discredits the belief. |
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Term
| Conscious processing (dual process model of cognition) |
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Definition
Reflective, deliberate
Effortful reasoning.
Implementation of rules and logical steps of inference and action in an international manner.
Rational, strategic.
Slow. |
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Term
| Unconscious processing (dual process model of cognition) |
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Definition
Automatic, impulsive.
Intuitive problem solving, heuristics.
Emotionally charged situations.
Quick and effortless. |
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Term
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Definition
Process by which recent exposure to certain stimuli or events increase the accessibility of certain memories, categories, or schemas.
Awakening of associations.
Can be provoked by words, images, smells, or one's own mood.
Can occur subliminally.
Spontaneiously and unconsciously. |
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Term
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Definition
When information is mixed (positive and negative), we tend to place more emphasis on the negative.
Reduced or eliminated when positive information is predominate. |
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Term
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Definition
| Predisposition to expect things to turn our well for ourselves. |
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Term
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Definition
Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.
Planning fallacy: Overestimating time, underestimating demands.
Focused on future instead of informed by past.
Past failures attributed to contingent factors.
Motivation triggers optimistic bias. |
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Term
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Definition
| Overestimate our ability to predict our feelings. |
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