Major Types of societies:

• Hunting and gathering society- a human group that depends on hunting and gathering for survival
• Pastoral and horticultural societies-a society based on the pasturing of animals and cultivating plants by use of hand tools
• Agricultural societies- a society based on large-scale agriculture: plows drawn by animals are the source of food production
• Industrial societies- a society based on the harnessing of machines powered by fuels
• Postindustrial societies- a society based on information, services, and high technology, rather than on raw materials manufacturing
• Biotech societies- a society whose economy increasingly centers around the application of genetics- human genetics for medicine, and plant and animal genetics for the production of food and materials

The technical “revolutions” associated with each major transformation in societies:

• Domestication revolution- the first social revolution, based on the domestication of plants and animals, which led to pastoral and horticultural societies
• Agricultural revolution- the second social revolution, based on the invention of the plow, which led to agricultural societies
• Industrial revolution- the third social revolution, occurring when machines powered by fuels replaced most animal and human power

Major types of groups

Primary vs. secondary

• Primary- a group characterized by intimate, long-term, face-to-face association

• Secondary- a larger, more relatively temporary, more anonymous, formal, and impersonal group based on some interest or activity.  Its members are likely to interact on the basis on specific statuses

In-group vs. out-group

• In-group– groups toward which we feel loyalty
• Out-group- groups toward which we feel antagonism

Reference groups

• A group that we use as a standard to evaluate ourselves. Examples: family, neighbors, teachers, classmates

Basic leadership styles:

• Authoritarian leader- an individual who leads by giving orders
• Democratic leader- an individual who leads by trying to reach a consensus
• Laissez-faire leader- and individual who leads by being highly permissive

Milgrim’s “Shock” experiment

• Many of the people in the experiment continued to shock the person even when they knew they were being hurt
• The power of authority is very strong

Groupthink and its effects:

• A narrowing of though by a group of people, leading to the perception that there is only one correct answer; to even suggest alternatives becomes a sign of disloyalty
• This can cause people to put aside moral judgments and disregard risk

the ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals

Dyad:

the smallest possible group, consisting of two persons

the alignment of some members of a group against others

Transformation from traditional to rational societies:

• Traditional orientation- the idea that the past is the best guide for the present; characterizes tribal, peasant, and feudal societies
• Rationalization of society- a widespread acceptance of rationality(using rules, efficiency, and practical results to determine human affairs) and social organizations that are built largely around this idea

Weber: explanation for the rationalization of society:

• Religion broke tradition
• A changed way of thinking produced capitalism and capitalism demands rationalization

“Ideal” vs. “real” bureaucracy:

• Ideal- a composite of characteristics based on specific examples, favored
• Real- informal power, what people actually do

Voluntary organizations and their functions:

• A group made up of people who voluntarily organize on the basis of some mutual interest
  1. Voluntary organizations advance particular interests
  2. Voluntary groups offer people an identity
  3. Voluntary associations help govern the nation and maintain social order
  4. Some voluntary groups mediate between the government and the individual
  5. By providing training in organizational skills, some groups help individuals climb the occupational ladder
  6. Other groups help bring people into the political mainstream
  7. Some voluntary associations pave the way to social change

Humanizing the workplace: objectives and practices: critique by conflict theorists

• Organizing a workplace in such a way that it develops rather than impedes human potential
• More flexible rules, are more open in decision making, distribute power more equally, and offer more uniform access to opportunities
• Humanizing the work setting is an attempt to manipulate workers into cooperating in their own exploitation; it is intended to conceal the capitalists’ goal of exploiting workers.

a tongue-in-cheek observation that the members of an organization are promoted for their accomplishments until they reach their level of incompetence; there they cease to be promoted, remaining at the level at which they can no longer do work

Robert Michels’ term for the tendency of formal organizations to be dominated by a small, self-perpetuating elite

Quality circles:

Norms that aren’t stated, disadvantage- men have access to team sports, not explicitly discussed (playing golf with your boss)

Psychological vs. sociological explanations of deviance:

• Psychologists focus on abnormalities within the individual, their supposition is that deviating individuals have deviating personalities and that subconscious motives drive people to deviate
• Sociologists search for factors outside the individual, they look for social influences that recruit people to break norms

Positive functions of deviance:

• 1. Deviance clarifies moral boundaries and affirms norms
  2. Deviance promotes social unity
  3. Deviance promotes social change

Edwin Sutherland’s term to indicate that associating with some groups results in learning an “excess of definitions” of deviance, and, by extension, in a greater likelihood that one will become deviant

Conflict vs. functionalist vs. symbolic interactionist perspectives:

• Conflict- they believe that power and social inequality are the main characteristics of society, the power elite that runs societies controls the criminal justice system, most fundamental division in capitalists society are those who own means of production and cell labor
• Functionalist- Emile Durkheim said that deviance is functional for a society, include three functions (positive functions of deviance) criminal is a natural part of society, believe that mainstream values generate crime
• Symbolic interactionist- believe that deviance is learned, people are destined to think and act as their group membership dictates, we produce our own orientations to life

Labeling Theory:

symbolic interactionists, Walter Reckless, two control systems work against our motivations to deviate, inner controls include internalized morality( consciousness and religious principles), outer controls consist of people (family, friends and police) who influence us not to deviate

Financial costs of lower-class vs. white-collar crime:

We are more afraid of blue collar crime however white-collar crimes are much more expensive for the society, but it punished less

any violation of norms

refers to characteristics that discredit people (blindness, obesity or deafness)

opportunities for crimes that are woven into the texture of life. Example: in urban slums robbery, burglary and drug dealing is typical

a percentage of former prisoners that are rearrested

Characteristics on the main dimensions of social class:

• Wealth- add up the person’s property and subtract their debt
• Power- ability to carry out your will
• Prestige- respect or regard, people want others to knowledge their prestige, primary factor in deciding which college to attend, deals with status symbols