Term
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Definition
| direct, indirect, constructs |
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Term
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Definition
- “Observation” is not passive
o When you go into a place, you’re observing everything that is going on actively. Ex: I heard kissing, I heard people ordering, who’s talking, who’s in charge, how do they know how to get people to line up, etc. Observation is a way to describe what is going on in a setting |
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Term
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Definition
| something you see these things. First hand observer. |
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Term
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Definition
| – someone is writing the information. Second hand report and someone’s writing a historical documents or the minutes of a meeting are all indirect. |
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Term
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Definition
Theoretical creations based on observations
But cannot be observed either directly or indirectly
Concepts are constructs we create/agree on to reflect something we want to measure (e.g. prejudice)
• Concepts not real… |
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Term
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Definition
o Concepts have no real, true, or objective meanings
o But concepts are useful because they relate the real things in the real world that we can see.
Even though real or observable, they relate to things that *are* real and observable.
The process by which specify what we mean when we use particular terms is called conceptualization. |
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Term
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Definition
o The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise
o Gives definite meaning to a concept by specifying one or more indicators of what we have in mind. |
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Term
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Definition
A conceptual definition specifies how a concept will be measured
o Ex: “for our purposes, socio-economic status is defined as income and educational attainment”
o This definition rules out explicitly other aspects such as occupational status, money in the bank, property, lineage, lifestyle, etc.
- Concept
o Conceptual definition: written statement |
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Term
| Theoretical propositions: |
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Definition
statement that links concept
ex the greater the. A, the greater the B |
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Term
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Definition
| o Used as empirical indicators of concepts |
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Term
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Definition
| specifies indicator and measurement (i.e. how you operationalize a concept) |
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Term
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Definition
| statement that links variables (specific hypotheses) |
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Term
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Definition
- An indicator is an observation that we choose to consider as a reflection of a variable we wish to study. Indicators become variables
o Example: church attendance is an indicator of religiosity. |
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Term
| Interchangeability of indicators |
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Definition
- Indicators should be interchangeable:
- If several different indicators all represent, to some degree, the same concept, then all of them will behave as itf it were real and could be observed.
o Ex: family income and academic performance |
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Term
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Definition
- Dimension is a specifiable aspect of a concept.
o Examples:
Life satisfaction
Health – dimension of health- but healthy in one dimension but not in another.
Religiosity – is it ritual- everything you do every week |
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Term
| Operationalization choices |
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Definition
- Range of variation
o Ex: married
o Ex: employment
- Variations between extremes
o Ex: age
o Ex: religion |
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Term
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Definition
o Nominal – category ex. Hair color. No ranks
o Ordinal- order
o Interval/ratio |
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Term
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Definition
- Nominal variables consist of a set of unordered attributes. These attributes are exhaustive and mutually exclusive
o Sex; religious affiliation, political party preference, occupations; birthplace, class |
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Term
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Definition
- Ordinal variables consist of a collection of ordered attributes, with undefined interval distances between the attributes
o Social class (poor, working class, lower middle class, upper middle class, upper class)
o Level of conservatism (low, medium, high) ex: how liberal are you? |
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Term
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Definition
| - Interval or ratio variables take on a set of numerical values |
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Term
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Definition
- That quality of measurement that suggest that the same that would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon
o Measuring church attendance
Interview a participant and they say they attend church on average of 6 times a year
You interview the same participant and they say they attend church 115times a year
o Bias/interviewer subjectivity
- Reliability does not equate accuracy or validity.
- Reliability: repeated instances should return consistent results
o Ensures replicability
- Testing reliability
o Test-retest method
o Split-half method
o Established measures
o Reliability of researchers |
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Term
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Definition
- Reliability: repeated instances should return consistent results
o Ensures replicability |
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Term
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Definition
| - A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure. |
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Term
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Definition
Face validity
- Criterion-related validity
- Construct
- Content |
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Term
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Definition
that quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable
o Economic development |
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Term
| Criterion-related validity |
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Definition
the degree to which a measure relates to some external criterion
o College board exam as a measure of academic aptitude. The validity of this measure is shown in its ability to predict college success of students
o Also called predicative validity |
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Term
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Definition
the degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships
o Marital satisfaction and marital fidelity |
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Term
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Definition
the degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included in a concept.
o Different types of prejudice |
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Term
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Definition
o For interval variables, the actual distance separating the values is meaningful but zero is not meaningful
Fahrenheit or the Celsius temperature scale; IQ
o Measures are ordered, distance is meaningful
o But zero is arbitrary
o Cannot use multiplication and division operations and come up with meaningful answer |
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Term
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Definition
o Ratio variables are based on a true zero point
Age, income, weight, height, length of residence in a given place, number of times married.
o Measures are ordered, distance is meaningful
o AND zero is non-arbitrary (true zero; zero is meaningful)
o Can use multiplication and division; yields meaningful result. |
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Term
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Definition
- Often need to make multiple observations/ questions to understand a particular concept or phenomenon
- Researchers have developed techniques for combining indicators into a single measure
o Two techniques: indexes and scale |
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Term
| - 3 reasons to use composite measures: |
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Definition
o 1. Because some variables have no clear indicators
E.g. prejudice, religiosity
o 2. To create an ordinal measure of a particular concept
E.g. using several questionnaire items can be combined to yield a measure from the lowest degree to highest
- 3. It’s efficient; it can yield a single numerical score |
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Term
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Definition
o A type of composite measure that summarizes and rank-orders several specific observations and represents a more general dimension
- Indexes: range of different items totaled to express a concept; each have similar degrees
o E.g. 4 questions; 1 pt if yes to any = score |
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Term
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Definition
o A type of composite measure composed of several items that represent one dimension of a phenomenon. Provides information on degree/intensity
E.g. bogardus social distance scale; likert scale
- Scales: score in terms of the patterns of their responses; takes into account different degrees
o The most intense indicator usually assumes the other indicators |
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Term
| differences and commonality about index and scale |
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Definition
- Commonalities:
o Both are ordinal measures of variables
o Both are composite measures of variables
- Differences:
o Different scoring logics
o Basically, indexes count the number of indicators of the variable and scales take into account the different intensities or degrees of those indicators |
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Term
| - Four steps in constructing an index: |
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Definition
o 1. Select possible items
Considering:
• Face validity
• Unidimensionality
• General or specific
• variance
o 2. Examine empirical relationships
Would respondents’ answers to one question help us predict how they’ll answer the others?
• If not, the items are likely not reflecting the same concept
• [bivariate and multivariate relationships]
o 3. Score the index
A. range of index scores
• Compared to:
• “what is your political leaning?’
• Very conservative (5), somewhat conservative (4), conservative (3), somewhat liberal (2), liberal (1), very liberal (0)
B. weights (equal or different)
• Generally, items should be weighted equally
o So reading the newsletter (1 pt if yes)
o 4. Validate the index
A. internal validation
B. external validation |
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Term
| - Bogardus social distance scale |
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Definition
o A measurement technique for determining the willingness of people to participate in social relations with other kinds of people
o (usually highest ranked question assumes yes to all prior)
Ex. Are you willing to allow sex offenders to live in US?
Are you willing to let sex offenders to live in davis?
Would you be willing to let sex offenders live on your block?
Would you be willing to let sex offenders live next door to you?
Would you be willing to have your child marry a sex offender? |
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Term
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Definition
o A type of composite measure that uses standardized response categories in survey questinnaires to determine the relative intensity of different items.
E.g. strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree
o Likert scale used almost exclusively for providing ordinal level measure of people’s attitudes, feelings
e.g. circle the responses that best reflects your feeling about the following statements
strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, neutral, somewhat agree, strongly disagree
• I like the way I look
• I feel comfortable when I walk into a room
• People like me
• I have many friends |
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Term
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Definition
- Typology: the classification of observations in terms of their attributes on two or more variables
- Ex: typology of political orientation and religious orientation |
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Term
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Definition
- Gallup
- Harris
- Pew research center
- American research group
- ABC/post
- CBS
- CNN/Time
- NBC/WSJ
- Newsweek
o Are all owned by a bigger industry. |
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Term
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Definition
Presidential election 1936
- Alf landon Vs. Franklin D Roosevelt- first poll |
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Term
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Definition
- Picked winner in 1920-1932
- Picked landon over FDR in 1936
o Mailed 10m ballots, 2m came back
- FDR won with enormous landslide
- What went wrong
o Sampling frame: limited to those with cars and phones
o Excluded the poor during the depression. – they neglected all the folks that weren’t rich. The poor voted. |
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Term
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Definition
History of sampling: Gallup in 1936
- George Gallup correctly predicted FDR in 1936
o What did he do to ensure his success>
o Sample selection
Quota sampling- men/women, urban/rural, college education/ less than college education, etc. (tried to get most of the population)
History of Samling: Gallup in 1948
- Accurate in 1936-1944
- But not in 1948
o Gallup predicted dewey would beat Truman
o But Truman won!
- Why was he unsuccessful?
- What went wrong?
- Quota frames were based on 1940 census
o Urban migration during WWII
o Underrepresented urban masses
- Stopped polling too soon
o A steady trend toward Truman
o Last minute decisions of undecided voters. |
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Term
| Two types of sampling methods |
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Definition
- Nonprobability sampling
- Probability sampling: random sampling- everyone had an equal chance to be a part of the sampling. |
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Term
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Definition
Any technique in which sample are selected in some way not suggested by probability theory.
o 1. Reliance on available subjects
o 2. Purposive (judgmental) sampling
o 3. Snowball sampling
o 4. Quota sampling |
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Term
| Reliance on available subjects (convenience) |
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Definition
Relying on available subjects
• E.g. stopping students on the quad
• Also called convenience or haphazard sampling.
Caution: generalizability- can’t generalize because it’s only general in one part of the region |
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Term
| Purposive (judgmental) sampling |
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Definition
Observations are selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative
Uses:
• Questionnaire pretest
• Study of certain social groups
• Deviant cases – people who don’t go to the quad- the people behind the stand or not engaging. Just mean different- deviating from the norm.
Sometime your sampling technique changes midstream. |
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Term
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Definition
A nonprobability sampling method, often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing.
Appropriate when members of a special population are difficult to locate
Examples: studies of migrant workers, homeless people, undocumented immigrants, sex workers. |
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Term
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Definition
Units are selected into a sample on the basis of prespecified characteristics, so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied.
• Problems with quota sampling
o The quota frame must be accurate
o The selection of sample units may be biased even though its proportion of the population is accurately estimated. |
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Term
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Definition
Someone who is well versed in the social phenomenon that you wish to study and who is willing to tell you what he or she knows about it.
- Informant is not the same as “respondent”
- Problem- that person that is giving you all that information- that person may be on the margin of the group and their information may not be too accurate- you’re only getting one view of the phenomenon. |
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Term
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Definition
All large-scale surveys use probability sampling methods
o E.g. us census (every 10 years)
o E.g. current population survey
o E.g. health and retirement survey |
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Term
| Probability sampling: representativeness |
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Definition
- Since probability sampling samples should have the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected, then:
o Descriptions and explanations derived from an analysis of the sample may be assumed to represent similar ones in the population
o And the statistics we derive from the sample are generalizable to the population from which it was selected. |
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Term
| Probability sampling: probability of selection |
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Definition
- EPSEM (equal probability of selection method)
- A basic principle of probability sampling is that all members of the population of interest have an equal chance of being selected into the sample |
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Term
| - Elements and population |
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Definition
o Element is the unit of which a population is composed and which is selected in a sample; term used in sampling. – people
o Population is the theoretically specified aggregation of the elements in a study
o Study population is that aggregation of elements from which a sample is actually selected |
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Term
| - Population parameter and sample statistics |
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Definition
o Probability theory provides tool researchers need to produce representative samples and to analyze the results of their sampling statistically
o Parameter: the summary description of a given variable in the population
E.g. the real mean annual income of Davis homeowners in 2010
o Sample statistic: the summary description of a variable in a sample, used to estimate a population parameter
E.g. the mean annual income of Davis homeowners in 2010 based on our sample. |
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Term
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Definition
o Sampling frame is the actual list of elements composing a population from which a sample is selected.
If the sample is to be representative of the population, it is essential that the sampling frame include all (or nearly all) members of the populations
E.g. a list of every living UC Davis retired faculty member
E.g. a list of every book that reached #1 on the new York time best seller list of fiction for 1960-2010 |
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Term
| Types of probability sampling designs |
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Definition
- Simple random sampling
- Systematic sampling
- Stratified sampling
- Cluster sampling |
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Term
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Definition
o Simple random sampling (srs) is a type of probability sampling in which the units composing a population are assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those number are included in the sample
o Feasible only with the simplest sampling frame.
o Not the most accurate method available. |
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Term
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Definition
o List all the elements in the sampling frame and then select every kth element
The “K” chosen is called the sampling interval
o Easier to use than simple random sampling.
o However (caution), arrangement of elements in the list can result in a biased sample.
o Illustrated:
Divide population size by desired sample to get
sampling interval: K
e.g., 1,000,000 / 2,000 = 500
Select every 500th (Kth) person |
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Term
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Definition
o Stratified sampling: Group elements into homogeneous (i.e. similar) subsets of the population before sampling. Then select sample using SRS or SS.
o This allows the researcher to ensure the representativeness of those subsets of interest.
o It can result in a more homogeneous sample and consequently a lower sampling error than simple random sampling.
Gender difference in college students’ major selection
Group population according to gender strata
Then select random or systematic sample in each subgroup |
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Term
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Definition
o Cluster sampling: a multistage sampling in which natural groups (clusters are sampled initially, with the members of each selected group being subsampled afterwards.
o Used when it's not possible or practical to create a list of all the elements that compose the target population (e.g. city population, all church members in California, etc.)
o Involves repetition of two basic steps: listing and sampling.
Natural groups (clusters) are sampled initially, with the members of each selected group being subsampled afterward.
o Illustrated:
Select a sample of US universities of colleges from a directory.
Get a list of all the students at all selected schools
Draw random samples from each |
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Term
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Definition
Sampling frames are used when all the elements of population are known and can be listed. Ex:
Population of interest is: all new transfer students enrolled at UC Davis Fall 2011.
Sampling frame is: A list of all new transfer students enrolled at UC Davis Fall 2011 from which we can randomly select elements for our sample.
Study population is: the elements on the sampling frame.
Sample is: A list of elements drawn at random from the sampling list. |
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Term
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Definition
the standard distance (k) between elements selected from a population for a sample
formula = population size/ sample size |
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Term
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Definition
the proportion of elements in the population that are selected to be in a sample
formula= sample sex/population size |
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Term
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Definition
Involves three major pairs of components:
Independent and dependent variables
Pretesting and posttesting
Experimental and control groups |
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Term
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Definition
| an experimental design in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control. |
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Term
| Independent and dependent variable |
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Definition
An experiment examines the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable. Both variables need to be operationally defined.
The independent variable takes the form of a stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| the measurement of a dependent variable among subjects. |
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Term
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Definition
| the measurement of a dependent variable among subjects AFTER the stimulus was introduced. |
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Term
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Definition
A group of subjects to whom an
experimental stimulus is administered. |
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Term
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Definition
| A group of subjects to whom no experimental stimulus is administered and who should resemble the experimental group in all other aspects. |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency of some people to work harder and perform better when they are participants in an experiment. Individuals may change their behavior due to the attention they are receiving from researchers rather than because of any manipulation of independent variables. |
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Term
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Definition
One-shot case study
One-group pretest-posttest design
Static-group comparison |
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Term
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Definition
| a technique for assigning experimental subjects to experimental and control groups randomly |
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Term
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Definition
| in connection with experiments, the procedure whereby pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their similarities on one or more variables, and one member of the pair is assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group |
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Term
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Definition
| a single group of subjects is measured on a dependent variable following the administration of some experimental stimulus. |
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Term
| one group pretest- postest design |
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Definition
| suffers from the possibility that some factor other than the independent variable might cause a change between the pretest and postest results |
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Term
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Definition
| some research is based on experimental and control groups but has no pretest |
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Term
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Definition
| the summary description of a given variable in a population |
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Term
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Definition
| the summary description of a variable in a sample, used to estimate a population parameter |
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Term
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Definition
| that unit of which a population is composed and which is selected in a sample. distinguished from units of analysis, which are used in data analysis |
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Term
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Definition
equal probability of selection method
a sample design in which each member of a population has the same chance of being selected into the sample |
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Term
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Definition
| a formal experiment conducted outside the laboratory in a natural setting |
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Term
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Definition
| The possibility that the conclusions drawn from experimental results may not reflect what went on in the experiment itself. |
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Term
| 7 threat to internal validity |
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Definition
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Selection bias
Attrition
Diffusion (contamination) |
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Term
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Definition
refers to the possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may not be generalizable to the “real” world.
Interaction between the testing situation and the experimental stimulus.
Impact of the stimulus depends on the experiment |
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Term
| Solomon four-group design |
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Definition
| - the Solomon four is a highly-controlled experimental design meant to assess the accuracy (internal validity (x)) in the experimental outcome. Eliminate maturation and pretest sensitization |
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Term
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Definition
| Independent and dependent variable Pretest and posttest (measuring y is pretest and then introduce x test and then measure the change in Y posttest) - measure of the dependent variable before and after the experimental treatment Experimental stimulus - use of the independent variable (“treatment”) anticipated to create a change Experimental and control groups (experimental has x and control groups doesn’t has x) |
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Term
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Definition
| the greater the number of people present, the less likely people are to help a person in distress. When an emergency situation occurs, observers are more likely to take action if there are few or no other witnesses. |
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Term
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Definition
28-year-old Genovese was returning home from work. As she approached her apartment entrance, she was attacked and stabbed by a man later identified as Winston Moseley.
Despite Genovese’s repeated calls for help, none of the dozen or so people in the nearby apartment building who heard her cries called police to report the incident. The attack first began at 3:20 AM, but it was not until 3:50 AM that someone first contacted police. |
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Term
| Topics appropriate for survey research |
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Definition
- Describe and explain; sometime explore
- Usually (not always) unit of analysis is individual
- Measures attitudes and orientation
o E.g. gallup polls |
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Term
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Definition
an instrument specifically designed to elicit information that will be useful for analysis.
o Includes demographic and other questions
o Used primarily in survey research
o Each question represents one indicator in a research project
o Respondent: a person who provides data for analysis by responding to a survey questionnaire. |
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Term
| guideline to asking good survey questions |
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Definition
The art of writing good questions
- Appropriate question forms
- Items are clear
- No “double-barreled” questions
- Respondent must be competent AND willing to answer
- Questions should be relevant
- Short items are best
- Avoid negative items
- Avoid biased language |
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Term
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Definition
- Respondents provide their own answers
o In-depth, qualitative interviewing relies almost exclusively on open-ended question
- Advantages
o Freedom and spontaneity of answers
o Opportunity to probe
- Disadvantages:
o Time-consuming
o Coding: very costly and slow to process
o Demands more effort from respondents |
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Term
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Definition
- Closed-ended questions ask respondents to select an answer from among a list of answers provided by the researcher.
o Respondents are more likely to answer closed-ended questions than open-ended ones
- Advantages
o No extended writing for respondent
o Easy to process
o Greater uniformity of responses
o Useful for testing specific hypotheses
- Disadvantages:
o Loss of spontaneous response
o Bias in answer categories |
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Term
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Definition
Avoid double-barreled questions
- Do you like frozen yogurt and how often do you eat it?
- Should the U.S. remove all military troops from Iraq and give Iraqis money to stabilize their own military?
- Do you drive to school and buy a taps parking permit? |
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Term
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Definition
Avoid biased items and terms
- Question wording can influence how respondents answer them
- Bias: the quality of a measurement device that tends to result in a misrepresentation of what is being measured.
- Example:
o Don’t you think that the congress should support presidential Obama’s healthcare plans?
o Do you agree or disagree with Angelina jolie that tax rates should be evenly distributed across individual groups?
- More support
o Halting rising crime rates dealing with drug addiction solving problems of big cities improving conditions of blacks protecting social security
- Less support
o Law enforcement drug rehabilitation assistance to big cities assistance to black social security. |
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Term
| Guidelines for constructing a questionnaire |
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Definition
- 1. One question per line.
- Skip patterns
o Have you ever voted in a national, state, or local
- 2. Use contingency questions when necessary but keep them very clear
- 3. Format matrix questions so they are easily answered.
- Matrix question illustrated
o Which of the following features have you used in the new web interface?
Account holding profile
Billing information
Opportunity tracking
Product usage
Look at power point
- 4. Be aware of issues with ordering items
o Education is negatively associated with being influenced by the order of items.
o Randomly order questions.
- 5. Include instructions for the questionnaire.
- 6. Pretest all or part of the questionnaire. |
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Term
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Definition
| a survey question intended for only some respondents determined by their responses to some other question. for example, all respondents might be asked whether they belong to the coas nostra and only those who said yes would be asked how often they go to company meetings and picnics. the latter would be contingency question. |
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Term
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Definition
| questions like what this country need is more law and order : Strongly agree(SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), Strongly disagree (SD) |
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Term
|
Definition
- 1. Questionnaire (survey instrument) construction
- 2. Sample selection
- 3. Data collection through surveys
- 4. Analysis |
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Term
| o 4 main types of surveys: |
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Definition
o 4 main types of surveys:
Self-administered questionnaires
Interview surveys
Telephone surveys
Online surveys |
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Term
|
Definition
- Mail distribution and return – Postpaid (researcher only pays when the survey is return.)
- Monitor returns and follow up
- Response rate:
o Number of people participating in a survey divided by the number selected in the sample (#respondent/#sample ex: 100/800 =12.5 response rate)
o Non-response bias
o “How can I increase response rate?” |
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Term
|
Definition
- Role of interviewer
o Higher response rate
o Lower “don’t knows”
o Clarifies questions without leading
- Reliability? – same results over and over.
o Difficult sometimes due to gender, age, looks, personality etc of interviewer.
- To increase validity and reliability:
o Follow question wording exactly
o Record responses exactly
- Other interviewer tips:
o Use probes
o Appropriate dress
o Study and become familiar with the questionnaire
o Record answers if possible
- Video |
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Term
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Definition
o Number of people participating in a survey divided by the number selected in the sample (#respondent/#sample ex: 100/800 =12.5 response rate)
o Non-response bias
o “How can I increase response rate?” |
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Term
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Definition
| a technique employed in interviewing to solicit a more complete answer to a question. it is a nondirective phrase or question used to encourage a respondent to elaborate on an answer. example include "anything more?" and "how's that" |
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Term
| telephone survey advantages and disadvantages |
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Definition
advantages:
- cheaper
-less time
- higher degree of control
disadvantages
- answering machine
- people with no landline or multiple phone - it reduces the randomness of sample
- intro cell phones |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
computer-assisted telephone interviewing
- interactive computer system that aid interviewers to ask questions over the phone
-oldest form of computer-aided interviewing
-started out in retail in 80's
(branches) |
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Term
| response rate in interviewing |
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Definition
| respondent/respondent population??? ex: 100/800 - response rate is 12.5% |
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Term
|
Definition
| ex. panda express survey to get free entree. |
|
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Term
| strength of survey research |
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Definition
Strength: usefulness can describe the characteristics of a very large population
-efficiency |
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Term
| weaknesses of survey research |
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Definition
- can seldom with the context of social life (in-depth knowledge)
-inflexible in some ways
-subject to artificiality
weak on validity (lack of in depth) |
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Term
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Definition
- one researcher uses another researcher's data to analyse their own research question
-general social research survey
--every year at university of chicago of attitude
-- american community survey provide data to people, state, government |
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